Foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) is one of the highly contagious diseases of domestic animals Effective control of this disease needs sensitive, specific, and quick diagnostic tools at each tier of control strategy In this paper we have outlined various diagnostic approaches from old to new generation in a nutshell Presently FMD diagnosis is being carried out using techniques such as Virus Isolation (VI), Sandwich-ELISA (S-ELISA), Liquid-Phase Blocking ELISA (LPBE), Multiplex-PCR (m-PCR), and indirect ELISA (DIVA), and real time-PCR can be used for detection of antibody against nonstructural proteins Nucleotide sequencing for serotyping, microarray as well as recombinant antigen-based detection, biosensor, phage display, and nucleic-acid-based diagnostic are on the way for rapid and specific detection of FMDV Various pen side tests, namely, lateral flow, RT-LAMP, Immunostrip tests, and so forth are also developed for detection of the virus in field condition

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A Brief Review on Diagnosis of Foot-and-Mouth Disease of Livestock: Conventional to Molecular Tools

We review the literature and discuss control options regarding foot and mouth disease (FMD) in wildlife around the world. There are more than 100 species of wild, feral, laboratory, or domesticated animals that have been infected naturally or experimentally with FMD virus. Apart from the African buffalo (Syncerus caffer) in sub-Saharan Africa, wildlife has not been demonstrated to play a significant role in the maintenance of FMD. More often, wildlife are passively infected when outbreaks of FMD occur in domestic livestock, and, in some wild ungulates, infection results in severe disease. Efforts to control FMD in wildlife may not be successful when the disease is endemic in livestock and may cause more harm to wildlife, human livelihoods, and domestic animals. Currently in sub-Saharan Africa, the complete eradication of FMD on a subcontinental scale in the near term is not possible, given the presence of FMD-infected African buffalo and the existence of weak veterinary infrastructures in some FMD-endemic countries. Therefore efforts to control the disease should be aimed at improved vaccines and improved use of vaccines, improved livestock management practices, and utilization of programs that can help in disease control such as the FMD Progressive Control Program and regulatory frameworks that facilitate trade such zonation, compartmentalization, and commodity-based trade. Though not meeting the definition of wildlife used in this review, feral domestic animals warrant a special concern with regard to FMD control.

https://bioone.org/journals/journal-of-wildlife-diseases/volume-49/issue-4/2012-11-276/FOOT-AND-MOUTH-DISEASE--A-LOOK-FROM-THE-WILD/10.7589/2012-11-276.pdf

Foot and mouth disease: a look from the wild side

Rusa unicolor (Kerr, 1792), or sambar, is the largest Oriental deer. Seven subspecies occur in varied habitats and elevations from India and Sri Lanka throughout southeastern Asia. Body mass and antler length decrease from west to east. R. unicolor is considered ancestral relative to the form of its male-only antlers and social behavior. Populations are vulnerable because of overexploitation for subsistence and markets in meat and antlers. R. unicolor was elevated by the International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources from no status in 2006 to “Vulnerable” in 2008 because of >50% decline in many populations over the past 3 generations. It is well represented in zoos and private collections and is introduced in Australia, New Zealand, South Africa, and the United States.

http://www.mammalogy.org/uploads/Leslie%202011%20-%20MS%2043(871),%201-30_0.pdf

Rusa unicolor (Artiodactyla: Cervidae)

Duck virus enteritis (DVE), also called duck plague, is one of the major contagious and fatal diseases of ducks, geese and swan. It is caused by duck enteritis virus (DEV)/Anatid herpesvirus-1 of the genus Mardivirus, family Herpesviridae, and subfamily Alpha-herpesvirinae. Of note, DVE has worldwide distribution, wherein migratory waterfowl plays a crucial role in its transmission within and between continents. Furthermore, horizontal and/ or vertical transmission plays a significant role in disease spread through oral-fecal discharges. Either of sexes from varying age groups of ducks is vulnerable to DVE. The disease is characterized by sudden death, vascular damage and subsequent internal hemorrhage, lesions in lymphoid organs, digestive mucosal eruptions, severe diarrhea and degenerative lesions in parenchymatous organs. Huge economic losses are connected with acute nature of the disease, increased morbidity and mortality (5%–100%), condemnations of carcasses, decreased egg production and hatc...

https://tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/01652176.2017.1298885

Duck virus enteritis (duck plague) - a comprehensive update.

Satellite beacon observations during eclipses have provided much information on the behavior of the ionosphere. A combination of Faraday rotation and differential phase measurements as well as ionosonde data can provide information on the topside and bottomside ionospheric behavior during an eclipse as well as on the production rate. Recent attention has been directed toward a study of the dynamics of the F region during an eclipse and the relation between the amount of depletion in the total electron content and the percent obscuration of the sun. Of particular interest is the time delay from the maximum obscuration to the maximum depletion of the total electron content. Further modeling studies are required in order to reproduce the experimental results. Further observations are also required in order to establish whether TID's are generated following a total solar eclipse as predicted theoretically. In particular, it appears that a more sensitive technique such as differential Doppler rather than Faraday rotation is required. The total solar eclipse of June 11, 1983, with its long totality time of 4–5 min over Indonesia and Papua New Guinea will provide an ideal opportunity for further studies of these unanswered questions.

https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1029/RS019i003p00769%4010.1002/%28ISSN%291944-799X.BEACSAT1

The study of the effect of solar eclipses on the ionosphere based on satellite beacon observations

Foot-and-mouth disease in wild and semi-domesticated animals of the north-eastern states of India

Incidence of elephant endotheliotropic herpesvirus in Asian elephants in India

Ionospheric electron content observations during the total solar eclipse of February 16, 1980

Duck enteritis virus (DEV) causes an acute and contagious infection in duck. The present study was carried out to evaluate the pathogenicity and pathodynamics of DEV isolates from different natural outbreaks in the Assam Province of India. A total of six wild-type isolates of DEV were revived in ducklings to determine its biologic characterization. Postmortem examination of infected ducklings revealed DEV-specific gross lesions in different organs. The presence of DEV was confirmed by its genome amplification and the presence of viral antigens from collected tissue samples by indirect fluorescent antibody test. All the isolates revived in ducklings were further propagated in duck embryo fibroblast cells. Highly virulent and low virulent isolates of DEV were selected for further study based on median duck infectivity dose (DID50) and median tissue culture infectivity dose (TCID50). The highly virulent isolate of DEV had values of 102 DID50/ml and 106.33 TCID50/ml, whereas the low virulent strain had titers of 10 DID50/ml and 104.83 TCID50/ml in the cell culture. Our results showed replication of DEV in ducks with the highest and lowest viral titers in the thymus and bursa of Fabricius, respectively. In addition, microscopic analysis revealed necrosis and degeneration of submucosal esophageal glands and glandular epithelium. The study will be useful to understand the organ tropism and pathologic alteration among the virulent DEV isolates.

Pathodynamics of Circulating Strains of Duck Enteritis Virus: A Step Forward to Understand Its Pathogenesis

The duck plague vaccine virus was adapted to grow in chicken fibroblast cell culture. Adaptation of the virus in chicken fibroblast cell culture was confirmed by detection of viral infection in infected cells by PCR and AGPT. In PCR, amplification of DNA dependent DNA polymerase gene of duck plague virus yielded 446 bp in vaccine virus against no amplification in negative template control. Total time required to complete the PCR including extraction of viral DNA is about 5 h. On the other hand in AGPT, faint precipitation lines were observed following 24 h and distinct bands were seen after 48 h of incubation at room temperature. The precipitate lines were obtained with acetate (pH 5.6) and phosphate (pH 7.2) buffer incorporating additional 8% NaCl. The cell adapted duck plague virus in the present study provides a scope to undertake further research on duck plague in India towards development of cell culture vaccine for use in the country.

S. K. Das

Papers

Foot-and-mouth disease in wild and semi-domesticated animals of the north-eastern states of India

Incidence of elephant endotheliotropic herpesvirus in Asian elephants in India

Ionospheric electron content observations during the total solar eclipse of February 16, 1980

Pathodynamics of Circulating Strains of Duck Enteritis Virus: A Step Forward to Understand Its Pathogenesis

Adaptation of vaccine strain of duck plague virus in chicken embryo fibroblast cell culture