The incidence and dimensions of sexual harassment in academia and the workplace.

One characteristic of men who sexually harass is that they are not aware that their actions are inappropriate or a misuse of their power (L. F. Fitzgerald, 1993a). We investigated the existence and automaticity of a mental association between the concepts of power and sex, and its consequences for sexual harassment tendencies. Using a subliminal priming paradigm, Experiment 1 demonstrated an automatic link between power and sex, and only for men high in the likelihood to sexually harass or aggress. In Experiment 2, male participants were unobtrusively primed with either power-related or neutral stimuli. For men likely to sexually aggress, but not other participants, attraction ratings of a female confederate were significantly higher in the power priming than the neutral priming condition.

Attractiveness of the underling: an automatic power --> sex association and its consequences for sexual harassment and aggression.

Three studies were conducted to develop and validate a measure of sexual harassment proclivities in males. Previous studies of sexual harassment were reviewed and a gap in the current knowledge of the psychological characteristics of sexual harassers was revealed. A possible technique for studying sexual harassment proclivities was suggested by recent research on rape proclivities. Two initial studies using this technique found (1) that the likelihood of sexually harassing can be reliably measured and 2) that this measure correlated with related attitude and belief measures. The third study demonstrated that the likelihood of sexual harassment measure can predict sexual behaviors in a laboratory setting.

Sexual harassment proclivities in men

I conceptualize sex-based harassment as behavior that derogates an individual based on sex. I propose that sex-based harassment is fundamentally motivated by the harasser's desire to protect or enhance his or her own sex-based status, a desire that stems from the fact that social status is stratified by a system of gender hierarchy. This theory explains currently identified forms of sexual harassment and predicts others, including nonsexual harassment between women.

Harassment Based on Sex: Protecting Social Status in the Context of Gender Hierarchy

Despite its proscription in legal jurisdictions around the world, workplace sexual harassment (SH) continues to be experienced by many women and some men in a variety of organizational settings. The aims of this review article are threefold: first, with a focus on workplace SH as it pertains to management and organizations, to synthesize the accumulated state of knowledge in the field; second, to evaluate this evidence, highlighting competing perspectives; and third, to canvass areas in need of further investigation. Variously ascribed through individual (psychological or legal consciousness) frameworks, sociocultural explanations and organizational perspectives, research consistently demonstrates that, like other forms of sexual violence, individuals who experience workplace SH suffer significant psychological, health- and job-related consequences. Yet they often do not make formal complaints through internal organizational procedures or to outside bodies. Laws, structural reforms and policy initiatives have had some success in raising awareness of the problem and have shaped rules and norms in the employment context. However, there is an imperative to target further workplace actions to effectively prevent and respond to SH.

Workplace sexual harassment 30 years on : a review of the literature

This article explores three models of sexual harassment derived from previous research, court cases and legal defenses: the Natural/Biological Model, the Organizational Model, and the Sociocultural Model. Data from a large (N=20, 083) stratified random sample of the federal workforce are analyzed in relation to these models. No clear-cut support for any one model emerges, and the picture of sexual harassment painted by these data appears to be more complex and varied than earlier, self-selected samples initially suggested. The results are discussed in light of the difficulties of using large-scale survey techniques to investigate complex cultural phenomena, and suggestions are made for future research approaches that could complement survey techniques.

Sexual Harassment at Work: Three Explanatory Models

The University of Michigan class of 1967: The Women's Life Paths Study.

The potential usefulness of research on women's issues to the policymaking process is discussed in the context of the arguments both for and against trying to increase the policy utility of social science research in general. J. Weiss's concepts of „intrinsic,”„intellectual,” and „political usefulness” are presented and applied to specific policy issues of importance to women. The paper examines ways in which researchers could enhance the policy relevance of their research and ways in which the psychology establishment could encourage the development of policy-relevant research. The middle section of the paper describes the large array of roles and settings for social scientists in the federal policy structure, treating the executive, legislative, and judicial branches in turn. The history of and dilemmas created by the „Brandeis brief” are presented. The last section of the paper presents some important policy issues affecting women in the next five years and illustrates how one particular area of research could be made more useful.

Can Research on Women Be More Effective in Shaping Policy

Summary.-The relationship between jealous feelings and behaviors was investigated by giving 185 college students who were currently dating four measures. Analysis showed that high self-esteem, an internal locus of control, and the making of a dispositional (internal) attribution of the cause of jealousy were all significantly related to the use of direct coping (jealous) behaviors. Romantic jealousy is defined as an aversive emotional reaction that accompanies the reahation that a person's romantic relationship with another is being threatened by a third party. Most research on jealousy has focused on the relationship between the precipitating jealousy-evoking event and the experience of jealous feelings (e.g., Mathes & Severa, 1981). The present study attempted to explore another dimension to the study of jealousy by investigating the relationship between jealous feelings and the subsequent behaviors. This relationship between jealous feelings and behaviors is thought to be mediated by a set of intervening variables labeled "Person Variables." These are the variables which characterize individuals before the romantic relationship and are identified as self-esteem, locus of control, and attribution of jealousy (situational or dispositional). Individuals making a situational attribution externahze the cause of their jealousy but those making a dispositional one internalize the cause. Jealous behaviors, referred to as coping behaviors, are divided into two types, direct and indirect. Direct behaviors are more confrontational behaviors (e.g., confronting partner about jealousy-evoking event) and the indirect type involves behaviors that are less confrontational (e.g., giving partner the silent treatment). It was expected that individuals scoring low on both attribution of jealousy (situational) and locus of control (internal) would use more direct coping behaviors since low levels of these variables afford individuals a certain degree of control over their lives that high levels do not. The reverse was predicted for self-esteem where high scores (high self-esteem) would represent more control.

Relationship between jealous feelings and behaviors

To understand whether young women's expectations of marriage-career role conflict may lead to strategic plans for combining roles and more successful role combination, data were analyzed from 117 women, primarily Caucasian, completing surveys in the Women's Life Paths Study in 1967 as college seniors and again in 1981. Seniors who wanted careers but anticipated conflict more often combined marriage and full-time career in 1981 than did those who wanted careers but expected no conflict. The latter combined marriage and career even less often than did those not initially wanting careers. Those who expected conflict asserted their career intentions with spouses, postponed childbearing, and had fewer children by 1981. Women not combining roles in 1981 most often reported conflict. Women with supportive partners less often reported conflict.

Sandra S. Tangri

Papers

Sexual Harassment at Work: Three Explanatory Models

The University of Michigan class of 1967: The Women's Life Paths Study.

Can Research on Women Be More Effective in Shaping Policy

Relationship between jealous feelings and behaviors

Why Expecting Conflict Is Good