抗原变异可使得多种致病微生物易于逃避宿主免疫应答。表达在感染红细胞表面的恶性疟原虫红细胞表面蛋白1（PfPMP1）与感染红细胞、内皮细胞、树突状细胞以及胎盘的单个或多个受体作用，在黏附及免疫逃避中起关键的作用。每个单倍体基因组var基因家族编码约60种成员，通过启动转录不同的var基因变异体为抗原变异提供了分子基础。

疟原虫var基因转换速率变化导致抗原变异[英]／Paul H, Robert P, Christodoulou Z, et al//Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A

Although gold is the subject of one of the most ancient themes of investigation in science, its renaissance now leads to an exponentially increasing number of publications, especially in the context of emerging nanoscience and nanotechnology with nanoparticles and self-assembled monolayers (SAMs). We will limit the present review to gold nanoparticles (AuNPs), also called gold colloids. AuNPs are the most stable metal nanoparticles, and they present fascinating aspects such as their assembly of multiple types involving materials science, the behavior of the individual particles, size-related electronic, magnetic and optical properties (quantum size effect), and their applications to catalysis and biology. Their promises are in these fields as well as in the bottom-up approach of nanotechnology, and they will be key materials and building block in the 21st century. Whereas the extraction of gold started in the 5th millennium B.C. near Varna (Bulgaria) and reached 10 tons per year in Egypt around 1200-1300 B.C. when the marvelous statue of Touthankamon was constructed, it is probable that “soluble” gold appeared around the 5th or 4th century B.C. in Egypt and China. In antiquity, materials were used in an ecological sense for both aesthetic and curative purposes. Colloidal gold was used to make ruby glass 293 Chem. Rev. 2004, 104, 293−346

Gold nanoparticles: assembly, supramolecular chemistry, quantum-size-related properties, and applications toward biology, catalysis, and nanotechnology.

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Self-assembled monolayers of thiolates on metals as a form of nanotechnology.

The interest in nanoscale materials stems from the fact that new properties are acquired at this length scale and, equally important, that these properties * To whom correspondence should be addressed. Phone, 404-8940292; fax, 404-894-0294; e-mail, mostafa.el-sayed@ chemistry.gatech.edu. † Case Western Reserve UniversitysMillis 2258. ‡ Phone, 216-368-5918; fax, 216-368-3006; e-mail, burda@case.edu. § Georgia Institute of Technology. 1025 Chem. Rev. 2005, 105, 1025−1102

Chemistry and properties of nanocrystals of different shapes.

Rapid growth in nanotechnology is increasing the likelihood of engineered nanomaterials coming into contact with humans and the environment. Nanoparticles interacting with proteins, membranes, cells, DNA and organelles establish a series of nanoparticle/biological interfaces that depend on colloidal forces as well as dynamic biophysicochemical interactions. These interactions lead to the formation of protein coronas, particle wrapping, intracellular uptake and biocatalytic processes that could have biocompatible or bioadverse outcomes. For their part, the biomolecules may induce phase transformations, free energy releases, restructuring and dissolution at the nanomaterial surface. Probing these various interfaces allows the development of predictive relationships between structure and activity that are determined by nanomaterial properties such as size, shape, surface chemistry, roughness and surface coatings. This knowledge is important from the perspective of safe use of nanomaterials.

Understanding biophysicochemical interactions at the nano–bio interface

Highlights from the latest articles in nanomaterial-based therapies for targeting cancer stem cells.

Compositions, methods and related apparatus, as can be used for selective protein detection and identification.

Methods and compositions for protein detection using nanoparticle-fluorescent polymer complexes

Multivalent Protein Recognition Using Synthetic Receptors

Publisher Summary This chapter discusses the investigations into the fundamental non-covalent enzyme–cofactor interactions controlling the redox behavior and physical properties of bio-organic cofactors, as well as studies on supramolecular model systems designed to decouple the effects of the different electrostatic and other interactions. Research towards the design and fabrication of molecular devices based on these same principles has been presented. The interplay between redox and recognition events is of crucial importance in biochemical regulation processes. Specific recognition controls various aspects of the redox process, such as redox potentials, electron-transfer pathways, protonation states, and orbital geometries. Series of parametric studies using synthetic model receptors have provided considerable insight into the nature of these regulation processes, probing the individual effects of hydrogen bonding, aromatic stacking, donor atom–π and other interactions on the redox properties of electroactive cofactors. The results obtained from the model studies have been found to correlate with effects observed in naturally occurring enzymes, and are directly applicable to the creation of redox-based pragmatic molecular devices.

The Interplay between Redox and Recognition Processes: Models and Devices

The use of nanoparticles and polymers bearing complementary recognition elements provides a versatile method for the formation of nanoparticle aggregates. This assembly process is highly dependent upon the primary and secondary recognition elements attached to the polymer and nanoparticle; we have observed variations in aggregate morphology that are directly correlated to supramolecular events at the colloid–polymer interface.

Vincent M. Rotello

Papers

Highlights from the latest articles in nanomaterial-based therapies for targeting cancer stem cells.

Methods and compositions for protein detection using nanoparticle-fluorescent polymer complexes

Multivalent Protein Recognition Using Synthetic Receptors

The Interplay between Redox and Recognition Processes: Models and Devices

Bricks and Mortar Self-Assembly of Nanoparticles.