Definitions of diversity. Measuring species diversity. Choosing an index and interpreting diversity measures. Sampling problems. Structural diversity. Applications of diversity measures. Summary.

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Ecological Diversity and its Measurement

Since 65 million years ago (Ma), Earth's climate has undergone a significant and complex evolution, the finer details of which are now coming to light through investigations of deep-sea sediment cores. This evolution includes gradual trends of warming and cooling driven by tectonic processes on time scales of 10(5) to 10(7) years, rhythmic or periodic cycles driven by orbital processes with 10(4)- to 10(6)-year cyclicity, and rare rapid aberrant shifts and extreme climate transients with durations of 10(3) to 10(5) years. Here, recent progress in defining the evolution of global climate over the Cenozoic Era is reviewed. We focus primarily on the periodic and anomalous components of variability over the early portion of this era, as constrained by the latest generation of deep-sea isotope records. We also consider how this improved perspective has led to the recognition of previously unforeseen mechanisms for altering climate.

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Trends, Rhythms, and Aberrations in Global Climate 65 Ma to Present

Ecological extinction caused by overfishing precedes all other pervasive human disturbance to coastal ecosystems, including pollution, degradation of water quality, and anthropogenic climate change. Historical abundances of large consumer species were fantastically large in comparison with recent observations. Paleoecological, archaeological, and historical data show that time lags of decades to centuries occurred between the onset of overfishing and consequent changes in ecological communities, because unfished species of similar trophic level assumed the ecological roles of overfished species until they too were overfished or died of epidemic diseases related to overcrowding. Retrospective data not only help to clarify underlying causes and rates of ecological change, but they also demonstrate achievable goals for restoration and management of coastal ecosystems that could not even be contemplated based on the limited perspective of recent observations alone.

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Historical overfishing and the recent collapse of coastal ecosystems.

Interactions between organisms are a major determinant of the distribution and abundance of species. Ecology textbooks (e.g., Ricklefs 1984, Krebs 1985, Begon et al. 1990) summarise these important interactions as intra- and interspecific competition for abiotic and biotic resources, predation, parasitism and mutualism. Conspicuously lacking from the list of key processes in most text books is the role that many organisms play in the creation, modification and maintenance of habitats. These activities do not involve direct trophic interactions between species, but they are nevertheless important and common. The ecological literature is rich in examples of habitat modification by organisms, some of which have been extensively studied (e.g. Thayer 1979, Naiman et al. 1988).

Organisms as ecosystem engineers

The management and conservation of the world's oceans require synthesis of spatial data on the distribution and intensity of human activities and the overlap of their impacts on marine ecosystems. We developed an ecosystem-specific, multiscale spatial model to synthesize 17 global data sets of anthropogenic drivers of ecological change for 20 marine ecosystems. Our analysis indicates that no area is unaffected by human influence and that a large fraction (41%) is strongly affected by multiple drivers. However, large areas of relatively little human impact remain, particularly near the poles. The analytical process and resulting maps provide flexible tools for regional and global efforts to allocate conservation resources; to implement ecosystem-based management; and to inform marine spatial planning, education, and basic research.

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A Global Map of Human Impact on Marine Ecosystems

El Niño in Santa Barbara Basin: Diatom, radiolarian and foraminiferan responses to the “1983 El Niño” event

Extreme climatic conditions recorded in Santa Barbara Basin laminated sediments: the 1835–1840Macoma event

The evolution of large marine mammals and their invasion of the pelagic realm is tied to the availability of sufficient food, which in turn is linked to upwelling areas and other highly productive regions in the ocean, as has been recognized for some time. Here I propose that silicate-supported upwelling (which provides the shorter food chain and hence the higher yield for apex consumers) and deep mixing within the Southern Ocean are the crucial ingredients of the system providing the stage for the evolution of whales. The Circumpolar Current receives silicate from various sources but especially from the North Atlantic Deep Water introduced in the Atlantic sector. The silicate is largely trapped in the Ring, some in the water, and some in the sediment, and is made available to shallower waters by unusually deep mixing. From these shallower depths silica-rich waters can enter the thermocline all through the southern hemisphere, stimulating diatom growth in upwelling systems to the equator and beyond. From the link diatoms–krill–whales and diatoms–krill–small fishes, it is readily apparent that the link between the climate narrative and the narrative of whale evolution (both for mysticetes and odontocetes) is the silica cycle. Studying it will generate hypotheses about whale evolution that can be tested using fossils.

Cenozoic cooling, Antarctic nutrient pump, and the evolution of whales

Carbon Dioxide Excursions and the Deep-Sea Record: Aspects of the Problem

The shells of large benthic foraminifera contain a record of seasonal temperature ranges and life history stages. Marginopora vertebralis and Cyclorbiculina compressa show distinct differences in life history, growth rate history, and life-span, as reflected in stable isotope patterns within their shells.

https://science.sciencemag.org/content/sci/209/4458/803.full.pdf

Wolfgang H Berger

Papers

El Niño in Santa Barbara Basin: Diatom, radiolarian and foraminiferan responses to the “1983 El Niño” event

Extreme climatic conditions recorded in Santa Barbara Basin laminated sediments: the 1835–1840Macoma event

Cenozoic cooling, Antarctic nutrient pump, and the evolution of whales

Carbon Dioxide Excursions and the Deep-Sea Record: Aspects of the Problem

Stable Isotopes in Benthic Foraminifera: Seasonal Variation in Large Tropical Species