As a practical and effective tool for quantitative in-plane deformation measurement of a planar object surface, two-dimensional digital image correlation (2D DIC) is now widely accepted and commonly used in the field of experimental mechanics. It directly provides full-field displacements to sub-pixel accuracy and full-field strains by comparing the digital images of a test object surface acquired before and after deformation. In this review, methodologies of the 2D DIC technique for displacement field measurement and strain field estimation are systematically reviewed and discussed. Detailed analyses of the measurement accuracy considering the influences of both experimental conditions and algorithm details are provided. Measures for achieving high accuracy deformation measurement using the 2D DIC technique are also recommended. Since microscale and nanoscale deformation measurement can easily be realized by combining the 2D DIC technique with high-spatial-resolution microscopes, the 2D DIC technique should find more applications in broad areas.

https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/0957-0233/20/6/062001/pdf

Two-dimensional digital image correlation for in-plane displacement and strain measurement: a review

A self-scanned 1024 element photodiode array and minicomputer are used to measure the phase (wavefront) in the interference pattern of an interferometer to lambda/100. The photodiode array samples intensities over a 32 x 32 matrix in the interference pattern as the length of the reference arm is varied piezoelectrically. Using these data the minicomputer synchronously detects the phase at each of the 1024 points by a Fourier series method and displays the wavefront in contour and perspective plot on a storage oscilloscope in less than 1 min (Bruning et al. Paper WE16, OSA Annual Meeting, Oct. 1972). The array of intensities is sampled and averaged many times in a random fashion so that the effects of air turbulence, vibrations, and thermal drifts are minimized. Very significant is the fact that wavefront errors in the interferometer are easily determined and may be automatically subtracted from current or subsequent wavefrots. Various programs supporting the measurement system include software for determining the aperture boundary, sum and difference of wavefronts, removal or insertion of tilt and focus errors, and routines for spatial manipulation of wavefronts. FFT programs transform wavefront data into point spread function and modulus and phase of the optical transfer function of lenses. Display programs plot these functions in contour and perspective. The system has been designed to optimize the collection of data to give higher than usual accuracy in measuring the individual elements and final performance of assembled diffraction limited optical systems, and furthermore, the short loop time of a few minutes makes the system an attractive alternative to constraints imposed by test glasses in the optical shop.

Digital wavefront measuring interferometer for testing optical surfaces and lenses

Digital image correlation for surface deformation measurement: historical developments, recent advances and future goals

Mean intensity gradient: An effective global parameter for quality assessment of the speckle patterns used in digital image correlation

A technique is described for the measurement of the residual stress tensor averaged over a specified volume within a component. The method involves measurement of small changes in lattice spacing using high resolution neutron diffraction. The stress is inferred from these measurements of the strain, and the theory of the relationship between the two quantities is described, including the effects of crystalline anisotropy. The various types of high resolution neutron diffractometer suitable for the work are described. Experimental results validating the method are given for a simple bent bar of mild steel of known strain, a plastically strained mild steel bar, and a mild steel tube of known torsional strain. Examples of the method in practical use are given by a cracked fatigue test specimen, a double-V test weld and a weld joining a tube to a plate. A more detailed example is the anisotropic response of a polycrystalline sample under elastic and plastic strain; this is illustrated by measurements...

Neutron diffraction methods for the study of residual stress fields

Digital Image Correlation (DIC) has been established as a flexible and effective technique to measure the displacements on specimen surface by matching the reference subsets in the undeformed image with the target subsets in the deformed image. With the existing DIC techniques, the user must rely on experience and intuition to manually define the size of the reference subset, which is found to be critical to the accuracy of measured displacements. In this paper, the problem of subset size selection in the DIC technique is investigated. Based on the Sum of Squared Differences (SSD) correlation criterion as well as the assumption that the gray intensity gradients of image noise are much lower than that of speckle image, a theoretical model of the displacement measurement accuracy of DIC is derived. The theoretical model indicates that the displacement measurement accuracy of DIC can be accurately predicted based on the variance of image noise and Sum of Square of Subset Intensity Gradients (SSSIG). The model further leads to a simple criterion for choosing a proper subset size for the DIC analysis. Numerical experiments have been performed to validate the proposed concepts, and the calculated results show good agreements with the theoretical predictions.

Study on subset size selection in digital image correlation for speckle patterns.

Digital Image Correlation (DIC) is a superior optical method to measure the surface deformation with a high accuracy. Currently, most researches on DIC are based on random patterns. In this paper, A DIC/Moire hybrid method using regular patterns is proposed for deformation measurement. In this method, a Moire fringe technique based on correlation coefficient is developed to provide accurate initial deformation estimation for DIC. Experimental results indicate a higher computational efficiency by the proposed method than the conventional DIC method. It is also found that the calculation accuracy increases using regular patterns. The advantage of obtaining accurate initial estimation by the DIC/Moire hybrid method may enable potential application in deformation measurements.

DIC/Moiré hybrid method based on regular patterns for deformation measurement.

Visual indentation apparatus and finite element modelling as a method to characterize 3D mechanical properties of facial skin in vivo

The inflation of an initially stressed cylindrical shell provides a good illustration of the phenomenon of the initiation and propagation of an instability, which shares the same mathematical and mechanical features with a variety of other strain localization phenomena in engineering structures and materials. The high speed CCD camera and digital image processing system were used to measure the 3D shape of the inflated cylindrical tube. The localized bulge of a cylindrical tube with closed ends forms when the internal pressure reaches a critical value Pcr. As more air is filled into the tube, the pressure drops but the radius at the centre of the bulge will increase until it reaches a maximum value r max. With continued inflation, the pressure stays at a constant value Pp. The purpose of this study is to investigate the critical and propagation pressures in the tubes and the profile outside when the shells under axial tension and internal pressure were inflating. We focus on the influence of the axial tension on the critical pressure. In this paper the problem is explored through experimental efforts. A series of experiments were conducted on commercially available natural rubber latex tubes involving different geometries and initial axial tensions, which were regarded as isotropic, homogeneous, incompressible and hyper-elastic materials.

/pdf/inflation-of-stressed-cylindrical-tubes-an-experimental-1f2j61hzdf.pdf

Inflation of stressed cylindrical tubes: an experimental study

Terahertz wave has been used to obtain the internal information of materials due to its penetrability to optically opaque materials. In this paper, we propose a full-field stress measuring method using terahertz time-domain spectroscopy. The theoretical model of the method was established based on the stress-optical law, and the method was then validated experimentally. A four-point bending experiment was conducted to determine the stress-optical coefficient of the specimen material, after which the proposed method was used to measure the stress distribution of a diametrically loaded disk. The experimental results present a reasonable agreement with the theoretical solution.

Zhiyong Wang

Papers

Study on subset size selection in digital image correlation for speckle patterns.

DIC/Moiré hybrid method based on regular patterns for deformation measurement.

Visual indentation apparatus and finite element modelling as a method to characterize 3D mechanical properties of facial skin in vivo

Inflation of stressed cylindrical tubes: an experimental study

Full-field stress measuring method based on terahertz time-domain spectroscopy