The RAS proteins control signalling pathways that are key regulators of several aspects of normal cell growth and malignant transformation. They are aberrant in most human tumours due to activating mutations in the RAS genes themselves or to alterations in upstream or downstream signalling components. Rational therapies that target the RAS pathways might inhibit tumour growth, survival and spread. Several of these new therapeutic agents are showing promise in the clinic and many more are being developed.

Targeting RAS signalling pathways in cancer therapy

Inositol phospholipids and cell surface receptor function.

From the pioneering work with acute transforming retroviruses to the current post-genomic era, RAS genes have always been at the leading edge of signal transduction and molecular oncology. Yet, a complete understanding of RAS function and dysfunction - mainly in human cancer - is still to come. The knowledge that has accumulated since their discovery 30 years ago has, however, been remarkable, and should pave the way for not only solving the outstanding issues regarding RAS biology, but also for developing efficacious drugs that could have a significant impact on cancer treatment.

RAS oncogenes: the first 30 years

The Na+/Ca2+ exchanger, an ion transport protein, is expressed in the plasma membrane (PM) of virtually all animal cells. It extrudes Ca2+ in parallel with the PM ATP-driven Ca2+ pump. As a reversible transporter, it also mediates Ca2+ entry in parallel with various ion channels. The energy for net Ca2+ transport by the Na+/Ca2+ exchanger and its direction depend on the Na+, Ca2+, and K+ gradients across the PM, the membrane potential, and the transport stoichiometry. In most cells, three Na+ are exchanged for one Ca2+. In vertebrate photoreceptors, some neurons, and certain other cells, K+ is transported in the same direction as Ca2+, with a coupling ratio of four Na+ to one Ca2+ plus one K+. The exchanger kinetics are affected by nontransported Ca2+, Na+, protons, ATP, and diverse other modulators. Five genes that code for the exchangers have been identified in mammals: three in the Na+/Ca2+ exchanger family (NCX1, NCX2, and NCX3) and two in the Na+/Ca2+ plus K+ family (NCKX1 and NCKX2). Genes homologous to NCX1 have been identified in frog, squid, lobster, and Drosophila. In mammals, alternatively spliced variants of NCX1 have been identified; dominant expression of these variants is cell type specific, which suggests that the variations are involved in targeting and/or functional differences. In cardiac myocytes, and probably other cell types, the exchanger serves a housekeeping role by maintaining a low intracellular Ca2+ concentration; its possible role in cardiac excitation-contraction coupling is controversial. Cellular increases in Na+ concentration lead to increases in Ca2+ concentration mediated by the Na+/Ca2+ exchanger; this is important in the therapeutic action of cardiotonic steroids like digitalis. Similarly, alterations of Na+ and Ca2+ apparently modulate basolateral K+ conductance in some epithelia, signaling in some special sense organs (e.g., photoreceptors and olfactory receptors) and Ca2+-dependent secretion in neurons and in many secretory cells. The juxtaposition of PM and sarco(endo)plasmic reticulum membranes may permit the PM Na+/Ca2+ exchanger to regulate sarco(endo)plasmic reticulum Ca2+ stores and influence cellular Ca2+ signaling.

https://www.physiology.org/doi/pdf/10.1152/physrev.1999.79.3.763

Sodium/Calcium Exchange: Its Physiological Implications

Cell membrane receptors for hormones and neurotransmitters form oligomeric complexes with GTP-regulatory proteins and inhibit the latter from reacting with GTP. Hormones and neurotransmitters act by releasing the inhibitory constraints imposed by the receptors, thus allowing the GTP-regulatory proteins to interact with and control the activity of enzymes such as adenylate cyclase. This theory may apply generally to membrane signal transduction involving surface receptors.

/pdf/the-role-of-hormone-receptors-and-gtp-regulatory-proteins-in-3mpm5095ux.pdf

The role of hormone receptors and GTP-regulatory proteins in membrane transduction

https://www.tau.ac.il/lifesci/departments/biochem/members/zor/pdfs/Zor_Anal_Biochem_1996.pdf

Linearization of the Bradford Protein Assay Increases Its Sensitivity: Theoretical and Experimental Studies

Treatment of turkey erthrocyte membranes with cholera toxin caused an enhancement of the basal and catecholamine-stimulated adenylate cyclase [ATP pyrophosphate-lyase (cyclizing), EC 4.6.1.1] activities. Both of these activities required the presence of GTP. The toxin effect on the adenylate cyclase activity concided with an inhibition of the catecholamine-stimulated guanosinetriphosphatase activity. Inhibition of the guanosinetriphosphatase, as well as enhancement of the adenylate cyclase activity, showed the same dependence on cholera toxin concentrations, and the effect of the toxin on both activities was dependent on the presence of NAD. It is proposed that continuous GTP hydrolysis at the regulatory guanyl nucleotide site is an essential turn-off mechanism, terminating activation of the adenylate cyclase. Cholera toxin inhibits the turn-off guanosinetriphosphatase reaction and thereby causes activation of the adenylate cyclase. According to this mechanism GTP should activate the toxin-treated preparation of adenylate cyclase, as does the hydrolysis-resistant analog guanosine 5'-(beta,gamma-immino)triphosphate [Gpp(NH)p]. Indeed, the toxin-treated adenylate cyclase was maximally activated, in the presence of isoproternol, by either GTP or Gpp(NH)p, while adenylate cyclase not treated with toxin was stimulated by hormone plus GTP to only one-fifth of the activity achieved with hormone plus Gpp(NH)p. Furthermore, the toxin-treated adenylate cyclase activated by isoproterenol plus GTP remained active for and extended period (half-time of 3 min) upon subsequent addition of the beta-adrenergic blocker, propranolol. The native enzyme, however, was refractory to propranolol only if activated by Gpp(NH)p but not by GTP.

https://www.pnas.org/content/pnas/74/8/3307.full.pdf

Mechanism of Adenylate Cyclase Activation by Cholera Toxin: Inhibition of GTP Hydrolysis at the Regulatory Site

Catecholamine-stimulated GTPase activity in turkey erythrocyte membranes

Guanosine 5'-O-(2-thiodiphosphate). An inhibitor of adenylate cyclase stimulation by guanine nucleotides and fluoride ions.

The fate of the guanyl nucleotide bound to the regulatory site of adenylate cyclase was studied on a preparation of turkey erythrocyte membranes that was incubated with [3H]GTP plus isoproterenol and subsequently washed to remove hormone and free guanyl nucleotide. Further incubation of this preparation in the presence of beta-adrenergic agonists resulted in the release from the membrane of tritiated nucleotide, identified as [3H]GDP. The catecholamine-induced release of [3H]GDP was increased 2 to 3 times in the presence of the unlabeled guanyl nucleotides GTP, guanosine 5'-(beta,gamma-imino)triphosphate [gpp(NH)p], GDP, and GMP, whereas adenine nucleotides had little effect. In the presence of Gpp(NH)p, isoproterenol induced the release of [3H]GDP and the activation of adenylate cyclase, both effects following similar time courses. The findings indicate that the inactive adenylate cyclase possesses tightly bound (GDP, produced by the hydrolysis of GTP at the regulatory site. The hormone stimulates adenylate cyclase activity by inducing an "opening" of the guanyl nucleotide site, resulting in dissociation of the bound GDP and binding of the activating guanosine triphosphate.

https://www.pnas.org/content/pnas/75/9/4155.full.pdf

Zvi Selinger

Papers

Linearization of the Bradford Protein Assay Increases Its Sensitivity: Theoretical and Experimental Studies

Mechanism of Adenylate Cyclase Activation by Cholera Toxin: Inhibition of GTP Hydrolysis at the Regulatory Site

Catecholamine-stimulated GTPase activity in turkey erythrocyte membranes

Guanosine 5'-O-(2-thiodiphosphate). An inhibitor of adenylate cyclase stimulation by guanine nucleotides and fluoride ions.

Mechanism of adenylate cyclase activation through the beta-adrenergic receptor: catecholamine-induced displacement of bound GDP by GTP.