Showing papers in "African Entomology in 2018"

Host Plants of Spodoptera frugiperda (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) in the Americas

Abstract: The fall armyworm, Spodoptera frugiperda (J.E. Smith, 1797) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae), is the most important noctuid pest in the Americas and has recently become an invasive pest in Africa. A detailed record of S. frugiperda's host plants is essential to better understand the biology and ecology of this pest, conduct future studies, and develop Integrated Pest Management programmes. In this study, we collected and systematically arranged the fragmented bibliographic information on S. frugiperda feeding records. Furthermore, we registered new records of host plants for S. frugiperda based on eight years of surveys in Brazil. The literature review and surveys resulted in a total of 353 S. frugiperda larval host plant records belonging to 76 plant families, principally Poaceae (106), Asteraceae (31) and Fabaceae (31). The literature search revealed 274 (77 % of total) bibliographic records, while 82 (23 %) are new records from surveys in Brazil. The new comprehensive and updated host plant list will improve our understanding of pest biology and management, as well as facilitate future studies on this pest.

Insecticidal Activity of Garlic (Allium sativum) and Ginger (Zingiber officinale) Oils on the Cotton Leafworm, Spodoptera littoralis (Boisd.) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae)

Abstract: Management of Spodoptera littoralis infestation has been achieved by using chemical insecticides; however, the environment-friendly methods without unwanted side effects of these chemicals are becoming very important in modern pest management strategies. Natural products including plant extracts and oils are some of the alternative approaches in pest control. In the present work, insecticidal activities of oils from garlic cloves (Allium sativum), and ginger rhizomes (Zingiber officinale) were evaluated on S. littoralis by means of sublethal concentrations. The essential oils were extracted and their chemical composition was identified using a GC Ultra-ISQ mass spectrometer. The results showed that there were highly significant differences between all treatments and the control in some biological aspects. The larval and pupal duration was significantly prolonged, also pupal weight increased for all treatments when compared to the control. The percentage of hatchability of deposited eggs was significantly decreased, especially when using ginger both oil extracts at LC50 concentration. On the other hand, the pupation percentage, rate of adult emergence, sex ratio and female fecundity were not significantly affected by all applications. The catalase enzyme (CAT) activity showed significant difference only at LC50 of ginger oil.

Control Options for False Codling Moth, Thaumatotibia leucotreta (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae), in South Africa, With Emphasis on the Potential Use of Entomopathogenic Nematodes and Fungi

Abstract: False codling moth (FCM), Thaumatotibia leucotreta (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae) is an important pest of various fruit crops in South Africa. Current FCM control strategies include the use of chemical insecticides. However, FCM has developed resistance to some of the insecticides, and stringent chemical residue restrictions have been imposed by some foreign markets. Thus, the demand for high-quality fruit has translated into a need for new, efficient and effective integrated pest management (IPM) strategies. One such strategy is the control of the soil-dwelling life stages of FCM, using entomopathogenic nematodes (EPNs) and entomopathogenic fungi (EPF). Both of the biocontrol agents concerned have individually been shown to be effective against FCM. However, it is possible that, if they are applied simultaneously, a synergistic relationship might be observed between EPNs and EPF that could serve to enhance their efficacy against the target pest. In addition to reviewing previous and current control options against FCM in South African fruit crops, this study investigates the potential for using EPNs and EPF individually, and in combination, as biological control agents against FCM within an IPM system.

Characterisation of the Fall Armyworm (Spodoptera frugiperda J.E. Smith) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) from South Africa

Abstract: Phylogenetic analyses based on the COI gene region, for 19 South African specimens of the fall armyworm (FAW), separated them into two well-supported clades. These clades indicated significant intraspecific variation and support the hypotheses that maize and rice strains of FAW are present in South Africa.

First Report of Aedes albopictus (Diptera: Culicidae) in the Democratic Republic of Congo

Abstract: In January 2016, Aedes albopictus adults were found in the Jardin Zoologique in central Kinshasa. Subsequent visits found more adults and larvae at numerous sites in Kinshasa. The finding of Ae. albopictus in Kinshasa is not unexpected, but its presence is of importance as it is a vector of multiple mosquito-borne viruses. Further work is needed to determine the distribution of Ae. albopictus in the Democratic Republic of Congo. Aedes albopictus Skuse is a mosquito with a worldwide distribution. Along with Aedes aegypti, it is an important vector of yellow fever, dengue, chikungunya and Zika viruses. It also has been shown to play an important role in chikungunya and Zika virus transmission in central Africa (Paupy et al. 2012; Grard et al. 2014). There was an outbreak of chikungunya in Kinshasa in 1999– 2000 (Pastorino et al. 2004) but vectors were not identified. Subsequent outbreaks of chikungunya have been investigated but no Ae. albopictus larvae or adults were collected prior to 2016 (S. Fasine, pers. comm.). Despite the identification of chikungunya-positive Ae. albopictus in nearby Brazzaville, Republic of Congo (Mombouli et al. 2013), and the prediction that the potential distribution of Ae. albopictus could include the entire territory of the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC) (Benedict et al. 2007), no reports of Ae. albopictus have been published for DRC. This report is the first to document the occurrence of Aedes albopictus in DRC. On 18 January 2016, one of the authors (S.R.I.) was visiting the Jardin Zoologique, a zoo located in Gombe, Kinshasa, DRC. This zoo holds many animals including chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes), olive baboons (Papio anubis), and other monkeys. There are a variety of other animals including crocodiles, birds and buffalo. While in a shady area of the park, mosquitoes were noticed and photographed (Fig. 1). Subsequent visits (20–25 January 2016) to the zoo and the nearby Parc de Boeck resulted in the collection of 28 adults (human landing collection) and 246 larvae. Collections were then expanded to other sites across Kinshasa (Fig. 2), where 405 adult mosquitoes were collected using aspirators. These were identified to species using standard morphological identification keys (Huang 2004; Edwards 1941). Of the 405 mosquitoes, 199 (49 %) were Ae. albopictus and 206 (51 %) were Ae. aegypti. Larvae were also collected. While a majority of these were identified as Culex sp., both Ae. albopictus and Ae. aegypti were also encountered. Our survey shows a wide distribution of Ae. albopictus in the city of Kinshasa. Aedes albopictus and Ae. aegypti were often found in the same areas. Moumbouli et al. (2013) found the same result in nearby Brazzaville, Republic of Congo. The identification of Ae. albopictus in Kinshasa is certainly not surprising, but its presence in Kinshasa, a city of over 10 million inhabitants, where chikungunya outbreaks have occurred and where the virus has also been found in pools of Aedes mosquitoes (Mbanzulu, pers. comm.) is of concern. Additionally, Ae. albopictus has been found to play a role in Zika outbreaks in nearby Gabon (Grard et al. 2014). The mosquitoes present in the zoo have the opportunity to bite both the primates housed

Temperature-Dependent Growth and Virulence, and Mass Production Potential of Two Candidate Isolates of Metarhizium anisopliae (Metschnikoff) Sorokin for Managing Maruca vitrata Fabricius (Lepidoptera: Crambidae) on Cowpea

Abstract: Entomopathogenic fungi are increasingly gaining recognition as a viable alternative to synthetic insecticides for pest management; their efficacy is influenced by several biotic and abiotic factors. In this study, the effect of temperature on germination, growth and virulence of two isolates of Metarhizium anisopliae, ICIPE 18 and ICIPE 69, against first-instar larvae of Maruca vitrata at temperatures ranging from 15–35 °C, and mass-production potential of the isolates were assessed under laboratory conditions. Minimum, optimum and maximum threshold temperatures for efficacy of the best performing isolate, ICIPE 69, were estimated by the quadratic equation which emerged as the best model among the nonlinear mathematical expressions tested. Neither isolate germinated at 15 °C while germination was low at 35 °C for both. The optimum temperature for germination, radial growth and virulence of ICIPE 69 and ICIPE 18 ranged between 25–30 °C and 25–33 °C, respectively. Mortality of M. vitrata by both isolates ranged between 56.0 and 91.6�ross the different temperatures, with the highest mortality occurring at 25 and 30 °C for ICIPE 69 and ICIPE 18, respectively. The shortest LT50 values were 2.5 days for ICIPE 18 and 2.2 days for ICIPE 69 at 33 °C and 25 °C, respectively. The quadratic model predicted 25–30 °C as the optimum temperature range for maximum efficacy of M. anisopliae isolate ICIPE 69 against M. vitrata. Upper and lower threshold temperatures were predicted as 40 °C and 10 °C, respectively. Comparison of aerial conidia production on rice showed that ICIPE 69 yielded higher amounts of conidia (18.4 g conidia/kg rice) than ICIPE 18 (12.4 g conidia/kg rice). The results suggest that ICIPE 69 is a promising candidate for biocontrol of M. vitrata.

Composition, Host Range and Host Suitability of Vegetable-Infesting Tephritids on Cucurbits Cultivated in Kenya

Abstract: Damage incidence and interactions between native and invasive vegetable-infesting fruit flies (Diptera: Tephritidae) on high-value crops have rarely been studied, despite their threats to the horticultural industries in Africa and quarantine implications.We established the composition and host range of tephritid flies in the field and carried out comparative host suitability studies of major fruit flies: Dacus bivittatus (Bigot), Dacus ciliatus Loew and Zeugodacus cucurbitae (Coquillet) on watermelon [Citrullus lanatus (Thunb.)], cucumber (Cucumis sativus L.), courgette (Cucurbita pepo L.) and butternut (Cucurbita moschata Duchesne) in the laboratory. Five new host species were recorded. Zeugodacus cucurbitae was the most destructive fruit fly, infesting 17 hosts from five families, followed by D. ciliatus and D. bivittatus. Direct field damage inflicted on immature to mature crops on the plants ranged from 2.1%on eggplant (Solanum melongena L.) to 66.8%on bitter gourd (Momordica charantia L.). The most preferred hosts of Z. cucurbitae were bitter gourd, watermelon and tomato (Solanum lycopersicum L.) (16.2, 13.3 and 12.1 flies/kg fruit, respectively). Mango (Mangifera indica L.) (24.1 flies/kg fruit) and guava (Psidium guajava L.) (14.7 flies/kg fruit) were recorded for the first time as hosts of D. ciliatus. The relative abundance index showed high variation among host species, suggesting a differential use of these hosts by the different fruit fly species. Choice versus no-choice experiments revealed a significant variation in pupal recovery, pupal size, adult emergence, percentage females, adult wing deformity and body size. These results are significant for the decision-making process for effective monitoring and management of fruit fly species on cucurbitaceous vegetable crops.

A Review of Bradysia spp. (Diptera: Sciaridae) as Pests in Nursery and Glasshouse Crops, With Special Reference to Biological Control Using Entomopathogenic Nematodes

Abstract: Fungus gnats, which are also commonly known as mushroom fly, nuisance flies, black fungus gnats, and dark-winged fungus gnats, are small, dark-coloured flies that belong to the family Sciaridae. Although fungus gnats are principally mycophagous, they have also been described as opportunistic herbivores, making them important plant pests. They are primarily a problem in high moisture conditions. They cause direct damage on the plant through larval feeding and indirect damage through creation of entry points for plant pathogens. They also transfer fungal diseases between plants. The most important species that have been described as pests are Bradysia coprophila Lintner and Bradysia impatiens Johannsen. The latter is regarded as synonymous to Bradysia difformis, has a global distribution and has recently been identified in South African forest pine nursery beds. Control has mainly been achieved through the use of chemical insecticides, but also, to a considerable extent, the use of biocontrol agents such as entomopathogenic nematodes (EPNs). The use of EPNs is preferred, since fungus gnats are pests of such crops as mushrooms and vegetables that have a short lifecycle, or of houseplants that are in very close association with human beings. Control usingEPNshas mainly been achieved through the use of Steinernema feltiae.

Higher Mosquito Aggressiveness and Malaria Transmission Following the Distribution of Alpha-Cypermethrin Impregnated Mosquito Nets in a District of Douala, Cameroon

Abstract: Mass use of insecticide-treated mosquito nets impregnated with permethrin or its derivatives is likely to result in a decline in vector density and transmission of malaria. The present study shows, on the contrary, higher mosquito aggressiveness and an increase in malaria transmission in a district of Douala where alpha-cypermethrin impregnated mosquito nets were recently distributed.Asurvey of the coverage and utilisation of insecticide-treated nets (ITNs) was conducted in February 2016 in the Youpwe district. Night catches of adult mosquitoes on human volunteers were carried out prior to (January 2016) and after (March 2016) alpha-cypermethrin impregnated mosquito nets distribution, in and outside eight randomly selected houses in the Youpwe district. Mosquitoes were identified according to morphological and molecular criteria. The physiological age of mosquitoes was determined according to the Detinova method. Vectors' infectivity was determined by the ELISA CSP test. Long-lasting insecticidal nets coverage and utilisation rates in the Youpwe district were 95.2%and 90 %, respectively. Overall, 3923 mosquitoes were collected within 32 man-night catches. Anopheles coluzzii (24.8 %, n=973) and Culex quinquefasciatus (75.2 %; n=2950) were the only species aggressive to humans. The biting rate was significantly higher after ITN distribution (P=0.024). The aggressiveness cycles were similar during the two phases of the study with a peak of activity between 22:00 and 00:00. The physiological age and infectivity of An. coluzzii were significantly lower before the distribution of ITNs (P <0.004). Poor effectiveness of alpha-cypermethrin impregnated mosquito nets at a dose of 200 mg/m2, added to first rainfalls, are the likely causes of the significant increase in aggressiveness and malaria transmission.

Potential Use of Local Entomopathogenic Nematodes to Control Bradysia impatiens (Diptera: Sciaridae) Under Laboratory Conditions

Abstract: Bradysia spp. are major pests of undercover crops, to which they can cause considerable economic loss. The use of entomopathogenic nematodes (EPNs) for the control of Bradysia spp. has proven to be relatively advantageous, since sciarids are mostly pests of undercover crops that have a short lifecycle, or for which the application of pesticides is unsuitable. In this study, eight South African local EPN species and a non-native EPN species, namely Steinernema feltiae, were tested for their ability to kill Bradysia impatiens larvae at different temperatures. The results showed four local EPN species, Steinernema yirgalemense, Heterorhabditis noenieputensis, Heterorhabditis indica and Heterorhabditis zealandica, achieving higher than 80 % mortality, at 25 °C and 30 °C, from the different bioassays performed. Heterorhabditis zealandica had the lowest LD50 of 2.60 infective juveniles (IJs) per larva and LD90 of 18.68 IJs/larva. Steinernema yirgalemense had an LD50 of 8.98 and an LD90 of 64.16, which were similar to those of H. indica. Steinernema yirgalemense, H. indica and H. zealandica were all able to reproduce inside the fourth-instar larvae of B. impatiens, and to produce IJs. The relatively larger nematodes, Steinernema jeffreyense, Steinernema khoisanae, and Steinernema litchii were unable to infect the fourth-instar larvae of B. impatiens, which indicated that the size of the EPNs affected their ability to infect fungus gnat larvae. This study demonstrated the high potential for the use of locally isolated EPNs for the control of fungus gnats in South Africa.

The Distribution and Abundance of the Stem-Galling Fly, Cecidochares connexa (Macquart) (Diptera: Tephritidae), a Biological Control Agent of Chromolaena odorata (L.) (Asteraceae), in Ghana

Abstract: Chromolaena odorata (L.) R.M. King and H. Robinson (Asteraceae: Eupatorieae) is one of the worst invasive weeds in West Africa, and a serious biotic threat to food security. The stem-galling fly, Cecidochares connexa (Macquart) (Diptera: Tephritidae), a biological control agent for C. odorata, was released in the Ivory Coast in 2003 and first detected in Ghana in 2014. The spatiotemporal distribution and abundance of C. connexa in Ghana was determined by country-wide surveys from 2015 to 2016. Galls were found in varying densities across Ghana but gall densities were consistently low east of Lake Volta. A limited survey conducted in the extreme west of Togo in 2016, found the gall fly also in low numbers. There was a significant correlation between C. connexa gall densities and the distance from the release sites in the Ivory Coast. The distribution and abundance of the gall fly in Ghana could be explained by its spread from the original release sites over time and/or the much drier conditions east of Lak...

Distribution of Benthic Macroinvertebrates in the Selati River of the Olifants River System, South Africa

Abstract: The Ga-Selati River has been systemically impaired by increasing human activities in its catchment, resulting in contamination by mining, industrial and agricultural effluents and domestic waste, and as a result significantly impacting the water quality of the river. The study aimed at investigating the ecological state of the Ga-Selati River and the impact of water quality on the aquatic macroinvertebrate communities was conducted in 2014 and 2015. Five sites along the Ga-Selati River were selected for sampling macroinvertebrates. The family composition, based on abundance and diversity, was evaluated in relation to environmental variables. The levels of dissolved oxygen, conductivity, total dissolved solids, turbidity and nutrients affected the distribution of tolerant taxa. The number and diversity of macroinvertebrates were found to be higher at less degraded upstream sites compared to more degraded downstream sites. A canonical analysis clearly grouped the various macroinvertebrates with the physico-...

The Invasive Vespidae in South Africa: Potential Management Strategies and Current Status

Abstract: Vespula germanica (Fabricius) and Polistes dominula (Christ) are known to represent a significant threat to the biodiversity of ecosystems that they invade. Following their discovery in South Africa, there has been a lag in investigations into the presence and spread of both invasive wasp species in South Africa with limited action taken to address their expansion. Recent research indicated that populations of both species are still restricted to the Western Cape Region, where the Cape Fold Mountain Belt seems to serve as a barrier to further spread to the rest of South Africa. The limited distribution range creates a favourable scenario for management efforts and, if acted on rapidly, increases the possibility of successful control. Various control methods, including mechanical, chemical and biological control have been developed and implemented internationally in an effort to curb population expansion of social wasps. These methods, together with a summary of the initiatives that have been launched loca...

First Record of the Fall Armyworm, Spodoptera frugiperda (J.E. Smith, 1797) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae), in Rwanda

Abstract: In March 2017, during field inspections in Rwanda, a number of maize (Zea mays) and sorghum (Sorghum bicolor) plants were found to be infested with armyworm larvae. Based on morphological characteristics the larvae were tentatively identified in situ as fall armyworm (FAW) Spodoptera frugiperda (J.E. Smith, 1797) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae). The larvae were observed in six districts of Rwanda: Nyamagabe (2°28’14.5”S 29°27’35.4”E), Huye (2°31’10.9”S 29°40’12.0”E), Gisagara (2°36’01.4”S 29°49’58.8”E), Nyanza (2°20’04.9”S 29°42’00.7”E) and Ruhango (2°16’20.3”S 29°46’45.5”E) in the Southern Province and Gatsibo (1°31’21.7”S 30°14’07.8”E) in the Eastern Province. Sixty larvae were collected for molecular identification (10 from each district), from maize and sorghum, stored in 70 % ethanol and then shipped to CABI’s Diagnostic and Advisory Service in the U.K. The larvae were subsequently identified as S. frugiperda based on markings at both posterior and anterior ends and longitudinal banding patterns, as well as DNA barcoding of the mitochondrial cytochrome c oxidase 1 gene (CO1). The barcodes obtained provided a 100 % match to voucher specimen sequences of S. frugiperda, including the rice strain haplotype 1 (GenBank accession number U72977). This is the first confirmed record of FAW in Rwanda and adds to confirmed FAW records for 10 other African countries, Nigeria (Goergen et al. 2016), São Tomé and Príncipe (Goergen et al. 2016), Benin (Goergen et al. 2016), Togo (Goergen et al. 2016), Ghana (CABI 2017), Zimbabwe (FAO 2017), Swaziland (IPPC 2017a), Kenya (Kenya Ministry of Agriculture, Livestock and Fisheries 2017), Zambia (IPPC 2017b) and the Democratic Republic of Congo (IPAPEL-FAO 2017). There are also preliminary reports from Malawi, Mozambique, Namibia and South Africa (BBC 2017). To date, the main crop affected in Africa is maize; however, FAW is polyphagous and other important food crops are at risk, particularly rice (Oryza spp.), sorghum (Sorghum spp.) and sugarcane (Saccharum spp.). For the African countries where FAW has been confirmed, losses are estimated to be approximately $13 383 m (~£10 400 m), excluding the costs of subsequent seed losses (Abrahams et al. 2017). Fall armyworm is native to tropical and subtropical regions of the Americas and was reported for the first time on the African continent in 2016, in Nigeria (Goergen et al. 2016). Genetic research has shown that there are two FAW races, a ‘rice strain’ and a ‘corn strain’. These two strains are morphologically identical but differ genetically and both feed on maize. Ghana and Zambia are so far the African countries in which both strains have been recorded (Abrahams et al. 2017). Fall armyworm has been recorded on more than 80 plant species including maize, rice, sorghum, sugarcane, cotton (Gossypium spp.) and a number of vegetable crops (Invasive Species Compendium 2017). Sparks (1979) provided a review of the life cycle of FAW. To summarise, female moths can lay up to 1000 eggs in batches of 150–200. The eggs are laid on the underside of leaves when FAW densities are low, but indiscriminately when populations are high. Egg hatch takes 2–4 days at optimal temperatures. Larvae generally feed at night and complete their six (occasionally five) instars in 14–21 days depending on diet and temperature. Larvae are green at the early instar stages but can become darker, sometimes near-black, when mature. Late instar larvae have a characteristic inverted Y-shape on the head, white subdorsal and lateral lines along the body and four black spots arranged in a square on the eighth abdominal segment (Fig. 1). Fully grown larvae are approximately 3–4 cm long. The pupal stage takes 9–13 days

Relative Seasonal Occurrence of Economically Significant Heteropterans (Pentatomidae and Coreidae) on Macadamias in South Africa: Implications for Management

Abstract: The relative abundance of all heteropterans recovered during this survey was influenced by the phenological development of the host plant (macadamia). Bathycoelia distincta Distant (Hemiptera: Pentatomidae) was the dominant heteropteran and occurred during all four phenological stages of the host plant that were monitored. However, abundance levels of this pest decreased during winter when fewer nuts were available. This decrease was immediately accompanied by a concomitant increase in the relative abundance levels of lesser important heteropterans. B. distincta, Pseudatelus raptorius (Germar) (Hemiptera: Pentatomidae) and Pseudotheraptus wayi Brown (Hemiptera: Coreidae) were the only heteropterans able to reproduce in macadamias which further strengthened the hypothesis of seasonal resource-based competition by the dominant species. All heteropterans recovered from these surveys can be categorised into two major groups namely: a group with a fairly large body size and long mouthparts which is able to reproduce successfully in macadamias and which occur mainly when nuts are available, as well as a group with smaller body size, shorter mouthparts, which cannot reproduce in this crop and which is only abundant when there are no or few nuts available on the trees.

Megaselia scalaris (Diptera: Phoridae), an Opportunist Parasitoid of Honey Bees in Cameroon

Abstract: Contemporary variation and declines in honey bee colonies in most parts of the world have been attributed to several factors among which pests, pathogens and diseases remain preeminent (Goulson et al. 2015). Among these pests, phorid flies, previously considered of minor economic importance, are becoming increasingly prominent following reports of their contribution to widespread colony declines (Core et al. 2012; Dutto & Ferrazzi 2014). These dipteran parasitoids pose a threat to honey bees as well as other social bees such as bumble bees (Core et al. 2012; Otterstatter et al. 2002). Apocephalus borealis Brues is known to be a potential vector of deformed wing virus and Nosema ceranae (Microspora: Nosematidae) in honey bees (Core et al. 2012). Melaloncha sp. Brues attacks both honey and stingless bees resulting in severe infestations popularly referred to as ‘Autumn disease’ in South America due to the season in which they normally occur (Knutson & Murphy 1990). Phorid fly species in the genus Megaselia has been reported to parasitise slowmoving or deformed bees (Knutson & Murphy 1990; Dutto & Ferrazzi 2014; Core et al. 2012). Although M. scalaris is known to occur in Africa and infest honey bees (Disney 2008), their impact on bee health in Cameroon is poorly documented (Pirk et al. 2016). This is likely due to absence of surveillance. As part of a honey bee pest surveillance project we provide here both morphological and genetic evidence of M. scalaris infestations of honey bee colonies in Cameroon. We examined a total of 120 colonies in 21 apiaries in Cameroon distributed across the savannas in the North West (NW) Region (n = 65 colonies), the dense evergreen forests in the South West (SW) Region (n = 23) and the degraded evergreen forests in the East Region (n = 32) (Fig. 1). These regions are among the major beekeeping areas of Cameroon (Ingram & Njikeu 2011). All available colonies were sampled in apiaries with £10 colonies, while 10 colonies were randomly sampled in apiaries with >10 colonies. In each colony, approximately 30 worker honey bees were aspirated from the inner walls and entrance of the hive and placed in 50 ml centrifuge tube. The tubes were sealed tightly to kill the bees by asphyxiation. The death bee specimens were held at room temperature (25 ± 2.0 °C) within the same tubes, recapped with fine mesh netting (~0.25 mm) that excluded phorid flies and allowed sufficient air exchange for any developing parasites. Emergent fly larvae were allowed to pupate and their development followed until adult emergence (Fig. 2). Adult flies were collected and preserved in 95 % ethanol (DROP-CHIM, Cameroon) for subsequent molecular identification. Flies were tentatively identified as M. scalaris by a taxonomist (J.K. Mugambi) at the National Museums of Kenya, Nairobi. Genomic DNA was extracted from the individual whole fly samples using the ISOLATE II Genomic DNA kit (Bioline, U.K.) as per the manufacturer’s instructions. DNA barcodes were generated from selected phorid specimens to confirm the morphological identification. The barcode primers LCO1490 and HCO2198 (Folmer et al. 1994) were used to amplify a ~700 bp region of the partial mitochondrial cytochrome oxidase subunit 1 (CO1) gene. Amplification was carried out using the Mytaq HS Mix, 2x kit (Bioline, U.K.). Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) was performed in a 25 μl mixture containing 10–50 ng genomic DNA template, 20 μM of each primer (forward and reverse), 9.5 μl of RNase free water and 12.5 μl of MyTaq HS Mix, 2x buffer in a T100TM thermal cycler (Bio Rad). The cycling conditions were as follows; 95 °C for 1 min, followed by 35 cycles of 95 °C for 20 s, 45 °C for 20 s, 72 °C for 15 s and final extension of 72 °C for 7 min. Amplicons were resolved on a 1 % agarose gel stained with ethidium bromide against a 1 kb DNA

Family Variation of Aquatic Insects and Water Properties to Assess Freshwater Quality in El-Mansouriya Stream, Egypt

Abstract: The use of family variation of aquatic insects in assessing freshwater quality in ecosystems has only recently been applied in the northern parts of Africa. The current study along with El Husseiny et al. (2015) and Bream et al. (2017) can be considered the first of such studies in Egypt. The survey was conducted during the period April 2015 to February 2016, in the permanent stream, El-Mansouriya, in Dakahlia province, Egypt. The water quality and health status of water for human use of this stream was determined using different aquatic invertebrate family biotic indices formulations (BMWP, SWRC and EPT indexes) along with the physical and chemical properties. Water samples were analysed and the water quality parameters were compared to the WHO (2004) standards. Most of the parameters were found to be within permissible limits, except for turbidity and nutrient salts. Aquatic insects were collected and identified to order and family levels. A total of seven orders and 19 families were collected, including a few intolerant insects (EPT orders) and insects more tolerant to pollution (chironomid larvae). The values of the water quality parameters sampled showed significant correlations with aquatic insect diversity. The canonical correspondence analysis clarified that the electrical conductivity of the water was the most significant variable affecting the variation in taxa. From these results it can be seen that the water quality of this stream is moderately impacted, and could therefore be considered harmful, since this stream is the main supply to the Water Central Station in Aga. Water quality degradation is generally due to impacts associated with population growth, industrialisation and agricultural activities. These results can be used to assist in conservation planning and decision-making in Egypt.

The Distribution and Management of Two Invasive Pests of Eucalyptus: The Red Gum Lerp Psyllid, Glycaspis brimblecombei (Hemiptera: Psylloidae), and the Blue Gum Chalcid Wasp, Leptocybe invasa (Hymenoptera: Eulophidae), in Zimbabwe

Abstract: Eucalyptus species are indigenous to Australia but arenowgrown worldwide due to their fast growth rate and various uses as timber and fuel wood. Insect pests of Eucalyptus have since followed their host and, in most cases, leaving behind the natural enemies which usually regulate them below economic injury. This is the case with Glycaspis brimblecombei and Leptocybe invasa which are now resident in most parts of the world including Zimbabwe. Damage as a result of the two pests currently poses a threat to reforestation efforts to provide alternative sources of firewood for curing tobacco. The objective of this study was to determine the distribution of the two pests as well as assess the possibility of managing L. invasa through biological control by releasing and recovering successive generations of the natural enemy Selitrichodes neseri in selected L. invasa-infested areas. Surveys were therefore carried out in Zimbabwe and GPS coordinates for pest presence recorded and used to determine the current distribution and future projections of the two pests using Maximum Entropy (maxent) ecological niche modelling. In preliminary studies to manage L. invasa, the natural wasp enemy S. neseri was released in Eucalyptus plantations and recovery studies done to establish their perpetuation in the field. Based on temperature and precipitation averages for Zimbabwe, the model predicted widespread distribution of the two pests especially in Mashonaland West, Bulawayo, Harare, Midlands province and parts of Manicaland province. This predicted range was projected to shrink due to climate change by the year 2055. In terms of relative contribution in predicting the distribution of the occurrence data, the three most important variables were mean annual temperature (39 %), mean temperature coolest month (18.3%)and annual moisture index (18 %). The performance of the model was high, with an AUC value of 0.884. Selitrichodes neseri wasps were recovered in infested Eucalyptus samples 4–6 generations after the initial release, indicating a high possibility of the natural enemy being able to establish in the future. Our findings are therefore important in understanding the current and projected distribution of both L. invasa and G. brimblecombei in Zimbabwe and formulating management measures for the two pests.

Temperature-dependent growth and virulence, and mass production potential of two candidate isolates of Metarhizium anisopliae (Metschnikoff) Sorokin for managing Maruca vitrata …

Abstract: Entomopathogenic fungi are increasingly gaining recognition as a viable alternative to synthetic insecticides for pest management; their efficacy is influenced by several biotic and abiotic factors. In this study, the effect of temperature on germination, growth and virulence of two isolates of Metarhizium anisopliae, ICIPE 18 and ICIPE 69, against first-instar larvae of Maruca vitrata at temperatures ranging from 15–35 °C, and mass-production potential of the isolates were assessed under laboratory conditions. Minimum, optimum and maximum threshold temperatures for efficacy of the best performing isolate, ICIPE 69, were estimated by the quadratic equation which emerged as the best model among the nonlinear mathematical expressions tested. Neither isolate germinated at 15 °C while germination was low at 35 °C for both. The optimum temperature for germination, radial growth and virulence of ICIPE 69 and ICIPE 18 ranged between 25–30 °C and 25–33 °C, respectively. Mortality of M. vitrata by both isolates ranged between 56.0 and 91.6%across the different temperatures, with the highest mortality occurring at 25 and 30 °C for ICIPE 69 and ICIPE 18, respectively. The shortest LT50 values were 2.5 days for ICIPE 18 and 2.2 days for ICIPE 69 at 33 °C and 25 °C, respectively. The quadratic model predicted 25–30 °C as the optimum temperature range for maximum efficacy of M. anisopliae isolate ICIPE 69 against M. vitrata. Upper and lower threshold temperatures were predicted as 40 °C and 10 °C, respectively. Comparison of aerial conidia production on rice showed that ICIPE 69 yielded higher amounts of conidia (18.4 g conidia/kg rice) than ICIPE 18 (12.4 g conidia/kg rice). The results suggest that ICIPE 69 is a promising candidate for biocontrol of M. vitrata.

A New Species and New Records of the Genus Sarcophaga from Egypt, with a Key to the Known Egyptian Species (Diptera: Sarcophagidae)

Abstract: The Sarcophaga spp. available whether through the field collections from different Egyptian localities and/or through the material preserved in the main Egyptian insect collections are keyed in the present study. One new species, S. mennae sp. n., is described, and two new species records for Egypt, S. parkeri (Rohdendorf, 1937) and S. marshalli Parker, 1923 are discovered. A key to nine subgenera and 21 out of 27 species representing the genus Sarcophaga in Egypt is provided based primarily on male genitalia. Photographs and illustrations of treated species are included.

Suitability of Thrips tabaci L. (Thysonaptera: Thripidae) as Prey for the Phytoseiid Mite, Neoseiulus barkeri Hughes (Acari: Phytoseiidae)

Abstract: The predatory efficacy of phytoseiid mites, Neoseiulus barkeri was evaluated against onion thrips in controlled conditions. Different larval instars and adult thrips were provided as prey in different combinations (choice) or separately (no-choice). In choice test, no significant difference was observed in total thrips consumption per day. But in both observation hours (12 h or 24 h), a significant difference was observed between the feeding of immature and adult thrips. In a no-choice test,when we confined N. barkeri to feed on a specified diet of T. tabaci (first instar, second instar, or adults separately), a significant difference in total thrips consumption per day was observed in each prey group. In both tests, predatory mites fed more on first larval instar thrips compared to second larval instar and adults. However, consumption rate was rather higher during initial feeding hours (12 h) and slowed down later (24 h); this may be due to aggressive predation initially. The findings suggest that N. barkeri feed more on younger instars of T. tabaci and if these predators are released during early pest outbreak it will control the thrips population.

Diversity and abundance of lepidopteran stem borers and their respective native hosts in different vegetation mosaics in Tanzania

Abstract: Lepidopteran stem borers are important pests of maize and sorghum in East and southern Africa. Except for Chilo partellus (Swinhoe), the other important lepidopteran pests of maize and sorghum, Busseola fusca (Fuller), and Sesamia calamistis Hampson, are indigenous to the African continent. As some stem borers became pest, some species remained in the natural habitats where they still infest non-cereal host plants. However, understanding the diversity of stem borer species that remained in uncultivated habitats and their role in pest dynamics received little attention in research. With the current changes in the natural habitats, some of the species in these habitats may switch to become pests. In addition to host switch, some of the unknown species currently restricted to natural habitats may disappear altogether. Several studies have been undertaken in Tanzania to assess stem borer species diversity. However, there are challenges in comparing diversity values among different zones due to differences in sampling protocols. In this study, a standardised sampling protocol was used and the paper presents a catalogue of stem borer species and their respective hosts in five different vegetation mosaics in Tanzania.

Zoltanzonitis a New Genus of Afrotropical Nemognathinae (Coleoptera: Meloidae)

Abstract: The new Afrotropical nemognathine genus Zoltanzonitis is described. Species herein assigned have until now been placed in the Palaeotropical genus Zonitoschema based on their elongate, filiformantennae and greatly enlarged eyes, but are distinguished by the distinctly shorter antennomere II (0.5 or less the length of III), the absence of sclerotised rings in the male ejaculatory ductus and the emarginate ventrite V in males. Thenewgenus includes five sub-Saharan species belonging to two distinct phenetic groups. New combinations for all species are proposed as well as the following new synonymies: alluaudi, burgeoni elongaticeps var. surcoufi and posticalis = natala; elongaticeps and jansei = testaceiventris.

The Effect of Water Nutrients on the Feeding Intensity and Development of Larvae of Neochetina eichhorniae (Warner) (Coleoptera: Curculionidae), a Biocontrol Agent of the Invasive Water Hyacinth

Abstract: Water hyacinth is one of the five worst aquatic weeds that invades many SouthAfrican water bodies. It has been the target of at least eight biological control agents, including the water hyacinth weevil, Neochetina eichhorniae (Warner) (Coleoptera: Curculionidae). However, their success has been constrained by the high levels of eutrophication in South African water bodies, which promotes the plant's rapid compensation for feeding damage and growth. The aim of this research was to investigate the influence of water nutrients on the feeding and development of N. eichhorniae larvae.Water hyacinth plants were maintained at three different nutrient concentrations high (6 mg/l N; 0.83 mg/l P), medium (2.5 mg/l N; 0.4 mg/l P) and low (0.7 mg/l N; 0.01 mg/l P). The plants in each of these treatments were then inoculated with two larvae per plant, while the controls were kept free of larvae. Plant biomass and the number of leaves per plant were measured weekly for eight weeks. The results showed an increase in larval feeding rate as nutrient levels decreased. In contrast, larger larval size, greater numbers of survivors and shorter larval developmental time were recorded as nutrient concentrations increased from low to high levels. The findings of this study will therefore be helpful to understand how larval damage by N. eichhorniae affects water hyacinth populations and to predict the success of biocontrol under different nutrient levels.

The Role of the Harvester Termite, Trinervitermes trinervoides (Termitidae: Nasutitermitinae) in Semi-Arid Grassland Ecosystems of South Africa: Abundance, Biomass and Grass Consumption

Abstract: Trinervitermes trinervoides (Sjostedt) (Termitidae: Nasutitermitinae) is principally a grass litterfeeding species common to the semi-arid and arid grasslands of southernAfrica. Abundance of sterile adult termites (workers and soldiers) at eight sites within an area of semi-arid grassland, northwest of Bloemfontein in the Free State Province, varied between 34 and 4871/m2 (mean=2261/m2) with a live biomass of 0.2 to 27.8 g/m2 (mean=12.9 g/m2). The numbers of live mounds in an area do not necessarily reflect termite abundance. At two sites at Bultfontein fewer termites and lower biomass were present on the site with 137 mounds/ha than that with 97 mounds/ha. Experimental studies on grass consumption of artificially fed field colonies of different sizes were used to estimate consumption by termites at the different sites. Consumption at the various experimental sites varied between 2.7 and 451.2 kg/ha/year (mean: 203.4 ± 175.1 kg/ha/year) and a marked seasonal periodicity in consumption was demonstrated. The impact of T. trinervoides within well-managed grassland ecosystems where the litter-feeding species forman important link in the food chain, is chiefly beneficial and far outweigh its harmful effects which tend to be associated with degraded, overgrazed grassland and drought.

Gall Thrips Acaciothrips ebneri (Thysanoptera: Phlaeothripidae) from Ethiopia, a Promising Biological Control Agent for Prickly Acacia in Australia

Abstract: The Meat & Livestock Australia, Rural Industries Research & Development Corporation and Rural Research & Development for Profit Programme of the Australian Government (Department of Agriculture and Water Resources).

A Remarkable Teratological Case for Eucymatodera parva Schenkling, 1908 (Cleridae: Tillinae) from Namibia

Abstract: Teratology can be defined as the study of the causes producing abnormalities, malformations or defects of the physical development (Ujházy et al. 2012). Teratological examples have been described in almost all animal groups, including insects (Ferrer et al. 2014). The importance of reporting teratological events in insects has been discussed by Glasgow (1925), Cockayne (1937) and Savini & Furth (2004). Glasgow (1925) stated that insect malformations should be documented to make these cases available to investigators who may have a special interest in such events. Cockayne (1937) mentioned that, even if the observed teratologies do not represent something novel, it seems desirable to publish these descriptions accompanied by plates illustrating the nature of the abnormality. Savini & Furth (2004) in their discussion of malformations in Coleoptera, stressed the importance of recording insect abnormalities, indicating that, in some cases, these abnormalities offer valuable information about the influence of environmental conditions during insect development. Balazuc (1948) was the first to describe and classify various teratological cases within Coleoptera and provided a standard nomenclature for these abnormalities. Since the publication of his teratological glossary, numerous forms of teratomorphs in beetles (Carabidae, Cerambycidae, Chrysomelidae, Meloidae, Staphylinidae, Scarabaeidae and Tenebrionidae) have been reported and discussed by various authors, including Balazuc (1948, 1968), Haget (1949), Green (1952), Winkler (1958), Strand (1959), Delkeskamp (1969), Frank (1981), Gamarra & Outerelo (1986), Osuna (1992), Ortuño & Hernández (1993), NavarreteHeredia et al. (2002), Lays (2003), Savini & Furth (2004), Asiain & Marquez (2009), Clark & Belo Nieto (2010), and Ferrer et al. (2014). Here, we report a remarkable teratological case in a clerid male of the species Eucymatodera parva Schenkling, 1908 with an anomaly in the right antenna (Figs 1A–B). The specimen was captured in the Sossusvlei Dune area, south of Sesriem, Namibia, and is deposited in the insect collection of the Ditsong National Museum of Natural History, Pretoria, South Africa (TMSA). The specimen label has the following information: MATERIAL EXAMINED. South West Africa, Namib Sossus vlei, 24.40S 15.24E, 15-1-1975, E-Y: 546 at light, Endrödy-Younga col. Eucymatodera Schenkling is a clerid genus in the subfamily Tillinae which is currently composed of eight species (Corporaal 1950). The group is relatively common in sub-Saharan Africa, and it predominantly inhabits thorny forests, savannas and scrublands. The affected specimen displays a polymely (presence of supernumerary appendages) with a trifurcate right antenna emerging from a single scape (Fig. 1A–B). It appears that the right scape in this specimen is, in reality, three scapes fused together. Each antenna emerging from the fused scape is composed of 10 antennomeres and has the proportional size and shape of a normal antenna (Fig. 1B). The teratomorphic and left antennae are normally situated, just below the antennal emargination (Fig. 1B–C). The left antenna appears to be normal (Fig. 1C). The head, including mouthparts, and the thorax, abdomen, and legs also appear normal. The existence of teratomorphic specimens in various groups of insects is probably caused by changes in embryonic or postembryonic development (Balazuc 1948). On the other hand, certain malformations have no genetic background, but are triggered by chemical elements (Walton 1989; Martinez & van Emden 2001; Harrison et al. 2012), parasites (Marcangeli et al. 1992; Csosz 2012) or environmental factors (Clark & Belo Neto 2010). Irrespective of the cause, teratomorphs are scientifically important as they can provide insightful information about certain traits that, through

Two New Invasive Whiteflies (Hemiptera: Aleyrodidae) to Tanzania

Abstract: Two invasive whiteflies (Hemiptera: Aleyrodidae), Aleurotrachelus trachoides Back and Aleurotrachelus atratus Hempel, are recorded for the first time in Tanzania. These species were found colonising sweet potato (Ipomoea batatas L.) in a screenhouse at Kibaha Research Station in the Coast Region of Tanzania and a palm (Arecaceae) in Arusha, Tanzania, respectively. The enormous increase in the volume, diversity and swiftness of movement of plant products throughout the world has led to a proliferation and dissemination of invasive species, particularly ones closely associated with plants, such as scale insects and whiteflies. Two Neotropical whitefly species, Aleurotrachelus trachoides Back and Aleurotrachelus atratus Hempel have been rapidly extending their range to other regions of the world (Borowiec et al. 2010; EPPO 2016). This is the first report of their occurrence in Tanzania. Whiteflies (Hemiptera, Aleyrodidae) are represented by more than 1560 nominal species (Hodges & Evans 2005; Evans 2008). Some of these species are economically important pests that cause damage to crops directly through their feeding on phloem sap (Byrne & Bellows 1991; Bellotti & Arias 2001; Morales & Anderson 2001) which may result in greater than 50 % yield reduction in affected crops. In addition, whiteflies excrete honeydew, which leads to the proliferation of sooty mould fungi, discolouring and reducing the quality of food and fibre plants. However, certain species, especially those within the Bemisia tabaci complex, may cause enormous crop losses through the transmission of plant viruses (Gibertson et al. 2015) and are perhaps the most economically important pests on a wide range of crops. The genus Aleurotrachelus is worldwide in distribution and consists of approximately 71 nominal species; of these, 12 are known to occur in the Afrotropical Region (Evans 2008) although only two species have been reported in Tanzania: Aleurotrachelus marginatus (Newstead) reported in Tanzania on a forest tree by Newstead (1911) and Aleurotrachelus tuberculatus Singh reported on guava (Psidium guajava L.) in Tanzania in 2014 (Evans 2008; Guastella et al. 2014). Back (1912) described the pepper whitefly, Aleurotrachelus trachoides Back (Hemiptera: Aleyrodidae), on Brazilian nightshade (Solanum seaforthianum Andr.) in Cuba. Since then, it has spread through most of the Neotropical Region, many of the southern U.S. States, and more recently to the Afrotropical (Gambia, Mozambique, Nigeria), Malagasian (Réunion), Oriental (India), AustroOriental (Malaysia) and Pacific Islands (Fiji, French Polynesia, Guam, Hawaii, Kosrae, Micronesia, Tahiti) regions (Evans 2008; EPPO 2015; Oyelade & Ayansola 2015; Kumar et al. 2016). Although not known to vector any plant viruses, A. trachoides can cause economic damage as its population can increase rapidly, especially in areas where it is removed from its natural enemies. This species has been found on over 34 different plant families but is most common on solanaceaous plants and Chamaedorea palms. It has potential to spread around the world through movement of infested plants as indicated by numerous interceptions of the species at US ports of entry (Evans 2008). No published records are known of its presence in the East African region; however, it was intercepted at a U.S. port of entry on Ipomoea batatas from the Democratic Republic of Congo on 17 March 2013. In June of 2016, large colonies of A. trachoides were discovered on the leaves of sweet potatoes (Ipomoea batatas L.) grown in a screenhouse at Kibaha Research Station in the Coast Region of Tanzania; this represents the first record of its occurrence in Tanzania. Routine monitoring of insect pests on crops rarely occurs in Tanzania, so it is not possible to determine when the whitefly first arrived in the country. A recent study by Guastella et al. (2014) reported two new whitefly

Non-Host Status of Commercial Export Grade Lemon Fruit (Citrus limon (L.) Burman f. cv. Eureka) for Ceratitis capitata, Ceratitis rosa, Ceratitis quilicii and Bactrocera dorsalis (Diptera: Tephritidae) in South Africa

Abstract: Markets importing citrus fruit including lemons, Citrus limon (L.) Burman f., from South Africa require that the fruit be free of fruit fly pests (Diptera: Tephritidae). Historically there has been no fruit fly infestation recorded on lemons destined for export from South Africa. In this study, we assessed the host status of commercial export grade Eureka lemons, Citrus limon (L.) Burmanf. cv. Eureka, for four fruit fly pest species of economic importance in South Africa: Ceratitis capitata (Wiedemann), Ceratitis rosa Karsch, Ceratitis quilicii De Meyer, Mwatawala & Virgilio, and Bactrocera dorsalis (Hendel). Trapping was conducted in 10 Eureka lemon orchards in two major citrus production regions over two citrus seasons between 2016 and 2017 to determine the level of fruit fly abundance in the sampled orchards. Lemons were collected at harvest over the two seasons in the same orchards where trapping was conducted. Fruit fly infestation of the sampled lemons was determined by dissection. Additionally, infestation of lemons was determined under forced exposure to mature mated females of C. capitata and B. dorsalis. Trapping data showed the presence of adults of all four fruit fly species in the sampled lemon orchards. No fruit fly infestation was detected in 43 222 Eureka lemons sampled at harvest. There was also no infestation of lemons under forced exposure conditions. The results of this study provide evidence with 99.99 % efficacy and a 99%confidence level that SouthAfrican commercial export grade Eureka lemon fruit is not a host for C. capitata, C. rosa, C. quilicii or B. dorsalis.

First records of flesh flies (Diptera: Sarcophagidae) emerging from terrestrial snails in Morocco.

Abstract: Here we present the first records and new data on the biology of flesh flies (Diptera: Sarcophagidae) emerging from terrestrial snails belonging to the families Cochlicellidae, Helicidae and Hygromiidae collected from eight sites on the Moroccan Atlantic coast over the period May 2015 to May 2016.We successfully identified 271 adults of these flies. Five of them represent new records for the Moroccan fauna.With these new records, the number of known species belonging to the family Sarcophagidae in Morocco has been increased from 51 to 56.