Showing papers in "Behavioral Interventions in 2009"
TL;DR: In this article, a training protocol was developed, based on the literature on joint attention and on behavioral interventions, for children with autism to learn to respond to joint attention bids, engaging in turn-taking activities, and initiating joint attention.
Abstract: A lack of joint attention skills may constitute a core impairment in autism In the present study, a training protocol was developed, based on the literature on joint attention and on behavioral interventions The training was organized into a sequence of three main parts respectively aimed at establishing each of the following skills: (1) responding to joint attention bids, (2) engaging in turn-taking activities based on joint attention skills, and (3) initiating joint attention Two novel components were incorporated in the training: (a) a discrimination training procedure aimed at establishing the adult’s nods as conditioned reinforcers and (b) tasks based on turn-taking, where joint attention skills were targeted and reinforced The study was conducted according to a single-subject experimental design, in which joint attention skills were measured before and after intervention, using the ‘‘behavioral assessment of joint attention’’ Four 35–55 year-old children diagnosed with autism participated in the study All four children completed the training successfully and made significant progress in engaging in joint attention and in initiating joint attention skills Following the completion of training and at 1 month follow-up, parents reported that their children used their skills in different settings Moreover, at follow-up, all four children were reported to engage in joint attention behaviors and to enjoy doing so Copyright# 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd During the last few decades, joint attention has been investigated for several reasons One main reason for the growing interest in joint attention stems from the identification of the lack of such skills as a major problem in autism Deficits in this area of functioning are correlated with later deficits in other skills for these children
97 citations
TL;DR: The authors used a multiple-baseline design across settings replicated by five paraprofessionals to evaluate their use of behavioral strategies with young children with, or at risk for, autism spectrum disorder.
Abstract: Although the use of paraprofessionals in the education of young children with autism spectrum disorders (ASD) is a common practice, research on effective training procedures is scarce. The following study used a multiple-baseline design across settings replicated by five paraprofessionals to evaluate their use of behavioral strategies with young children with, or at risk for, autism spectrum disorder. A training package consisting of a workshop and performance feedback by their supervising special education teacher served as the intervention. Results revealed that even though the paraprofessionals demonstrated skills in the use of behavioral strategies at the workshop, there was either no transfer or generalization to the preschool or home environments where they worked, or their use of skills decreased over time. When performance feedback was provided to all participants, their correct use of strategies increased. The training model evaluated in this study provides an example of one that could be employed in a typical public school classroom or early intervention program. Copyright © 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
94 citations
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors examined the effectiveness of computer aided self-monitoring of academic task completion to reduce self-injurious behavior in a 13-year-old male student with autism.
Abstract: Self-monitoring to increase the on-task behavior of students with learning disabilities has been the focus of numerous studies in the literature. This study examined the effectiveness of computer aided self-monitoring of academic task completion to reduce self-injurious behavior in a 13-year-old male student with autism. Using an ABAB design, data were collected over 22 sessions in a resource-reading classroom. Visual and statistical analyses indicated that when self-monitoring of activity completion was implemented, rates of completion increased and maladaptive behaviors such as self-injurious behavior and tantruming decreased. Discussion follows for implications for self-monitoring with students with autism. Copyright © 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
71 citations
TL;DR: This paper used the Response Interruption and Redirection (RIRD; Ahearn, Clark, & McDonald, 2007) strategy to decrease the vocal behavior of a student with autism and found that the RIRD intervention successfully reduced the target behavior.
Abstract: This study was conducted to decrease vocal stereotypy in a student with autism. Results of functional analysis indicated that vocal stereotypy was maintained by automatic reinforcement. We used the Response Interruption and Redirection (RIRD; Ahearn, Clark, & McDonald, 2007) strategy to decrease the vocal behavior. An ABAB design was used. Results indicated that the RIRD intervention successfully reduced the target behavior. Results are discussed and implications for practice are provided. Copyright © 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
57 citations
TL;DR: In this article, the authors examined the vocal stereotypy of three boys who were diagnosed with an autism spectrum disorder (ASD) and found that each participant's vocal stereotyping was maintained by non-social consequences.
Abstract: We examined the vocal stereotypy of three boys who were diagnosed with an Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD). Results of functional analyses indicated that each participant's vocal stereotypy was maintained by non-social consequences. For two participants, verbal reprimands were provided contingent on vocal stereotypy in the presence of a red card (RC). For the third participant, after verbal reprimands alone did not decrease vocal stereotypy, toys were withdrawn contingent on vocal stereotypy in the presence of the RC. For all three participants, vocal stereotypy was permitted without programmed consequences the presence of a green card (GC). The results showed that vocal stereotypy decreased in the presence of the RC for all three participants; however, vocal stereotypy came under inhibitory control of the RC for only one of the three participants. The potential utility of using punishment to develop stimulus control of automatically reinforced problem behavior in academic settings is briefly discussed. Copyright © 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
54 citations
TL;DR: A package intervention consisting of goal setting, self-monitoring, and feedback was evaluated across five participants in a multiple baseline design with a brief reversal for three of the five participants.
Abstract: Obesity has become a leading cause of health problems in America, many of which can be combated by increasing physical activity. As a result, interventions targeting increased physical activity are greatly needed. In this study, a package intervention consisting of goal setting, self-monitoring, and feedback was evaluated across five participants in a multiple baseline design with a brief reversal for three of the five participants. The intervention package increased calorie expenditure for all five participants. Copyright © 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
48 citations
TL;DR: In this article, the effects of response blocking and competing stimuli on stereotypy and aggression were examined in an analysis conducted with a young girl diagnosed with autism and intellectual disability, and the treatment analysis revealed that the provision of competing stimuli, without response blocking resulted in decreases in both topographies.
Abstract: The effects of response blocking and competing stimuli on stereotypy and aggression were examined in an analysis conducted with a young girl diagnosed with autism and intellectual disability. A functional analysis of the stereotypic behavior revealed that blocking stereotypy increased aggression. The treatment analysis revealed that the provision of competing stimuli, without response blocking resulted in decreases in both topographies. Findings suggest that the provision of competing stimuli may be less likely to occasion other behaviors than blocking. Copyright © 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
40 citations
TL;DR: This article provided a review of published outcome studies that appeared in print from 1987 to 2008 which examined the specific effects of eye-movement desensitization and reprocessing (EMDR) on PTSD among military combat veterans.
Abstract: Prior meta-analyses have suggested that eye-movement desensitization and reprocessing (EMDR) may be effective in alleviating the symptoms of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). EMDR is now being recommended as a treatment for military combat veterans who suffer from PTSD. We provide a review of published outcome studies that appeared in print from 1987 – April, 2008 which examined the specific effects of EMDR on PTSD among military combat veterans. Studies were identified through electronic bibliographic databases, web sites, and manual searches of article reference lists. A total of six randomized controlled trials (RCTs) and three quasi-experimental studies met our inclusionary criteria and are reviewed. The evidence supporting the use of EMDR to treat combat veterans suffering from PTSD is sparse and equivocal, and does not rise to the threshold of labeling the therapy as an empirically supported treatment. It is premature to incorporate EMDR into routine care for veterans to alleviate combat-related PTSD. EMDR needs a considerably stronger evidentiary foundation which includes large-scale RCTs involving credible placebo controlled treatment conditions. Copyright © 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
40 citations
TL;DR: The authors used behavioral skills training and general-case training (GCT) to increase three-link vocal chains in three children with autism and two of them emitted more vocal chains following training.
Abstract: This study used behavioral skills training (BST) and general-case training (GCT) in which the experimenter simulated child performance to teach three staff to conduct NLP and response chaining to increase three-link vocal chains in three children with autism. Staff increased their correct NLP performance during post-training in comparison to baseline. Two of three children emitted more vocal chains following training. This study demonstrated that BST and GCT were effective in training NLP and response chaining. When assessing social validity, both Board Certified Behavior Analysts (BCBAs) and teachers did not indicate an increase in staff members' teaching skills. Future research should develop effective technologies to chain vocal behavior and to teach staff and parents to implement response chaining. Copyright © 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
34 citations
TL;DR: This article examined the relationship between the inter-response time (IRT) and the differential reinforcement of other behavior (DRO) requirement and found that DRO requirement that was set to the 25th percentile of the IRT distribution was more effective in reducing stereotypic behavior when compared with a DRO requiring set to 95th percentile.
Abstract: The reduction of stereotypic behavior is important for individuals with developmental disabilities because it may interfere with learning new skills. A common procedure used to reduce stereotypic behavior is differential reinforcement of other behavior (DRO). A DRO schedule is a procedure in which reinforcement is delivered given the absence of a target response for a period of time. Although DRO schedules have been shown to be effective in reducing a variety of stereotypic behavior, empirical studies have not yet determined the most effective way to thin the reinforcement schedule. The current study examined the extent to which the relationship between the inter-response time (IRT) and the DRO requirement affects the reduction of stereotypic behavior. Results of the current study showed the DRO requirement that was set to the 25th percentile of the IRT distribution was more effective in reducing stereotypic behavior when compared with a DRO requirement set to the 95th percentile of the IRT distribution. Copyright # 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Because engagement in stereotypic behavior may interfere with learning new skills, the reduction of stereotypic behavior is important for individuals with developmental disabilities (Lovaas, Litrownik, & Mann, 1971). During the last 25 years functional analysis has become a primary behavior analytic approach for determining the function of problem behavior and corresponding treatment procedures (Iwata, 1982; Iwata, Dorsey, Slifer, Bauman, & Richman, 1994). It is the selection of a treatment procedure that corresponds to the function of the problem behavior that may increase the likelihood of successful treatment. Although functional analysis has received much empirical attention over the past 25 years, less attention has focused on improvements to the treatments themselves. For example,
32 citations
TL;DR: In this article, bite size and food texture were evaluated for a 3-year-old male with autism and severe food selectivity, and the results of each evaluation were used to successfully guide increases in volume and texture during therapeutic meals.
Abstract: Separate evaluations of bite size (amount of food on the spoon) and food texture were used to prescribe treatment changes in a feeding protocol for a 3-year-old male with autism and severe food selectivity. Each evaluation revealed distinct behavioral topographies, with an increase in disruptive behaviors associated with increased bite sizes and decreased swallowing and higher rates of gagging associated with higher textures. The results of each evaluation were used to successfully guide increases in volume and texture during therapeutic meals. Results highlight the importance of considering both aversion to food as well as oral motor skills when designing treatment for children with food selectivity. Copyright © 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
TL;DR: The authors evaluated the use of a tactile prompt, self-monitoring, and feedback to increase positive interaction in a group home setting and found that two of four participants increased positive interactions only when a supervisor was present and provided feedback.
Abstract: Because staff management research in group home settings typically involves direct observation of staff performance, reactivity to being observed is a potential limitation in these studies. The current study evaluated the use of a tactile prompt, self-monitoring, and feedback to increase positive interaction in a group home setting. Reactivity was assessed by having a confederate observe staff positive interaction when the supervisor was present and when the supervisor was absent. The effect of supervisor presence was evaluated using an alternating treatment within a multiple baseline across participants' research design. Results showed that two of four participants increased positive interactions only when a supervisor was present and the two other participants increased positive interaction only when a supervisor was present and provided feedback. Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
TL;DR: In this article, a brief, intensive intervention for the treatment of food selectivity in three boys who had failed to progress in traditional outpatient treatment is described, and the implications of this model of service delivery are discussed.
Abstract: While the literature on the assessment and treatment of childhood feeding disorders continues to grow, little research has focused on developing new forms of service delivery. This study demonstrates the effectiveness of a brief, intensive intervention for the treatment of food selectivity in three boys who had failed to progress in traditional outpatient treatment. The implications of this model of service delivery are discussed. Copyright © 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
TL;DR: In this paper, the effects of three signal arrangements (i.e., signaled FR1, signaled EXT, and signaled FR 1/EXT) on rates of problem behavior at dense schedule values and during schedule thinning were examined.
Abstract: Schedule thinning following functional communication training (FCT) can increase treatment feasibility. Multiple-schedule arrangements are often used in this process; however, the current literature provides little information on the optimum signal arrangements. In the current study, we examined the effects of three signal arrangements (i.e., signaled FR1, signaled EXT, and signaled FR1/EXT) on rates of problem behavior at dense schedule values and during schedule thinning. At all schedule values, signaled FR1/EXT controlled collateral behavior better than did signaled FR1 or signaled EXT. Additionally, for the single signal arrangements, the signaled FR1 was more efficient than the signaled EXT at dense schedules whereas the inverse was true at leaner schedules. Copyright © 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
TL;DR: In terms of prediction, frequency of aggressive behavior use was the best single predictor of restraint-related injury.
Abstract: The primary purpose of this study was to estimate the risks associated with the use of emergency personal restraints at a residential facility for persons with intellectual and developmental disabilities. A secondary purpose was to determine if correlates of restraint-related injury could be determined. One in three restraints resulted in an injury, but all of the injuries were minor. In terms of prediction, frequency of aggressive behavior use was the best single predictor of restraint-related injury. Copyright © 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
TL;DR: A differential reinforcement of low (DRL) rates procedure was implemented as a changing criterion design with positive punishment and response marking to reduce attention-maintained behavior of screaming, profanity, and disruptive behaviors of three adolescent males as discussed by the authors.
Abstract: A differential reinforcement of low (DRL) rates procedure was implemented as a changing criterion design with positive punishment and response marking to reduce attention-maintained behavior of screaming, profanity, and disruptive behaviors of three adolescent males One participant was diagnosed with static encephalopathy and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and severe mental retardation, the other two were diagnosed with Down syndrome, one with moderate mental retardation, and the other with severe mental retardation Through response marking, a verbal warning was delivered immediately following the initial occurrence of a target behavior A special token (positive punishment) was immediately delivered with a verbal cue and placed on a behavior board following the next occurrence of that behavior Appropriate requests (hand-raising) for attention was acknowledged and reinforced with verbal praise The DRL procedure, combined with positive punishment and response marking, was successful in decreasing the frequency of targeted behaviors amongst all participants Copyright © 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd
TL;DR: In this paper, the effects of teacher enthusiasm on task performance for 12 students diagnosed with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) were examined and the performance on a matching task was measured during a high attention condition and during a low attention condition.
Abstract: There is a general belief that students perform better in an environment in which teachers exude enthusiasm. In elementary, secondary, and college settings, the display of teacher enthusiasm is associated with positive attitudes toward teachers, recall of information, and improved classroom behavior. Although the assumption that students perform better when teachers are enthusiastic is frequently extended to individuals diagnosed with autism spectrum disorder (ASD), there is currently no published research on the topic. Research on social avoidance suggests that individuals with ASD may have no reaction or even respond negatively to teacher enthusiasm and thus perform better in conditions of low teacher attention. The current study was conducted to examine the effects of teacher enthusiasm on task performance for 12 students diagnosed with ASD. For each participant, performance on a matching task was measured during a high attention condition and during a low attention condition. Inspection of performance data indicated that out of 12 participants, only one demonstrated better performance under high teacher attention and one demonstrated better performance under low teacher attention. Interestingly, when experimenters who served as teachers in the study were asked to judge student performance, they stated that all students performed better with high teacher attention. Based on the findings of the current study, educators and parents of children with ASD are cautioned against attributing differences or changes in student performance to type and intensity of social attention provided during task instruction in the absence of conducting a functional analysis. Implications from the current study serve as a reminder to avoid oversimplifying the complex learning challenges of children with autism and reiterate the importance of obtaining continuous objective performance data. Copyright © 2008 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
TL;DR: The authors examined the effects of a differential reinforcement of high rate (DRH) intervention to increase a 9-year-old boy's pace of self-feeding and found an increase in the pace and a concomitant decrease in meal duration as compared to baseline.
Abstract: Although numerous studies have examined treatments for increasing food consumption among children with pediatric feeding disorders, very few have examined treatment of other mealtime-related difficulties. One such problem is a slow pace of self-feeding, which can lead to caregivers failure to adhere to treatments or be disruptive to others. We examined the effects of a differential reinforcement of high rate (DRH) intervention to increase a 9-year-old boy's pace of self-feeding. During treatment, the child received reinforcement contingent on consuming his meal within 30 min. Results showed an increase in the pace of self-feeding and a concomitant decrease in meal duration as compared to baseline. Copyright © 2008 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
TL;DR: In this article, the authors provide a clarification of undifferentiated functional analysis results through the inclusion of a particular reinforcer that was not a part of the initial functional analysis, and the treatment data showed a decrease in problem behavior when the putative reinforcer was provided response-dependently or response-independently.
Abstract: The results of functional analyses of problem behavior can sometimes be undifferentiated. This lack of differentiation might be due to methodological problems or the absence of variables relevant to problem behavior in the assessment. The current case example provides a clarification of undifferentiated functional analysis results through the inclusion of a particular reinforcer that was not a part of the initial functional analysis. In addition, treatment data showed a decrease in problem behavior when the putative reinforcer was provided response-dependently or response-independently. Copyright © 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
TL;DR: The findings suggest that parents with infants at-risk for ASD and an older affected child will access a variety of autism services for both children, but the parents will implement primarily non-validated interventions.
Abstract: Infants with older siblings having Autism Spectrum Disorders (ASD) are at genetically increased risk for showing characteristics of ASD in the first 2 years of life. Parents, who already have at least one child with ASD, may closely monitor their later born children and implement interventions as soon as the children begin to show what the parents believe is aberrant behavior or development that may be early stages of ASD. To date, no study has examined the number and types of services and interventions these parents access for their at-risk infants. Using a Service and Intervention Questionnaire developed for this study, we interviewed 23 parents involved in a larger prospective study of genetically at-risk infants who reported developmental and/or behavior problems in their at-risk infants. Parents reported utilizing a mean of 1.83 and 7.26 services and/or interventions for their at-risk infants and older children with ASD, respectively. Two-thirds of the interventions received by the infants were also given to their older affected siblings. The interventions included empirically validated approaches (e.g., early intensive behavioral intervention), professional services (speech–language therapy, occupational therapy), and non-validated treatments (e.g., diet and vitamin therapies). Overall, 81 non-validated and 18 validated interventions were used. On a Likert-type rating scale, parents reported being involved and satisfied with what they generally thought were effective services. They felt more involved and satisfied with ABA, and felt it was more effective than non-validated interventions. The findings suggest that parents with infants at-risk for ASD and an older affected child will access a variety of autism services for both children, but the parents will implement primarily non-validated interventions. Parent education is recommended to help parents make informed treatment decisions for their children. Copyright © 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors extended previous research by evaluating whether the overjustification effect was relevant to the use of non-reinforcing stimuli, reinforcers, or both.
Abstract: The overjustification effect suggests that external rewards may decrease intrinsically reinforced behaviors; however, this conclusion is often drawn from pre- and post-assessment data. The majority of studies published in this area do not take repeated measures of behavior. In addition, previous research has not distinguished between the use of rewards and reinforcers by demonstrating a reinforcement effect; hence, it is possible that the occurrence of the overjustification effect varies depending on the nature of the stimuli that are used. This study extended previous research by evaluating whether the overjustification effect was relevant to the use of non-reinforcing stimuli, reinforcers, or both. The effects of verbal praise were also evaluated in relation to the overjustification effect. Results indicated that behavior did not decrease below baseline levels following the contingent delivery of non-reinforcing stimuli, reinforcers, or verbal praise. Copyright © 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
TL;DR: In this paper, the extent to which a greater proportion of small behavior changes could be detected with momentary time sampling (MTS) was evaluated by combining various interval sizes of partial-interval recording (PIR) with 20,s, 30-s, 1 min MTS and using variable interval size of MTS that were based on means of 20's and 1'min.
Abstract: The extent to which a greater proportion of small behavior changes could be detected with momentary time-sampling (MTS) was evaluated by (a) combining various interval sizes of partial-interval recording (PIR) with 20 s, 30 s, 1 min MTS and (b) using variable interval sizes of MTS that were based on means of 20 s and 1 min. For each targeted percentage, low, moderate, and high inter-response times (IRTs) to event-run ratios were compared with reversal designs to determine whether sensitivity increased with either variation of MTS. The results showed that (a) combinations of 30 s and 1 min MTS/PIR yielded increased sensitivity over MTS alone; however, the increased sensitivity was offset by an increased probability of generating false positives and (b) variable-interval MTS produced comparable sensitivity to fixed-interval MTS. Thus, none of the methods increased detection of small behavior changes (decreased false negatives) without also increasing false positives. Copyright © 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
TL;DR: In this article, a treatment analysis following ambiguous functional analysis results was used to evaluate potential treatments to reduce the SIB of a 32-year-old male with profound mental retardation, and effective treatments were determined for increasing compliance with increasingly more complex self-care tasks.
Abstract: The present study used a treatment analysis following ambiguous functional analysis results to evaluate potential treatments to reduce the SIB of a 32-year-old male with profound mental retardation. In addition, effective treatments were determined for increasing compliance with increasingly more complex self-care tasks. The results indicated that a positive reinforcement procedure with extinction was useful toward reducing SIB and increasing compliance during three increasingly more complex tasks. The usefulness of treatment analysis procedures following ambiguous functional analysis results are discussed. Copyright © 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
TL;DR: The authors used a constructed response matching-to-sample (CRMTS) procedure to teach identity Kanji construction to a student with developmental disabilities and found that the student not only acquired the constructed responses through this procedure but also to spelling generalized to copy trained and untrained Kanji characters.
Abstract: Students with developmental disabilities often have difficulty with writing skills such as tracing, copying, and dictation writing. A student with writing difficulties participated in the present study, which used computer-based teaching applied in the home. We examined whether a student could copy Japanese Kanji characters after training with a constructed response matching-to-sample (CRMTS) procedure. The procedure was designed to teach identity Kanji construction. The results showed that the student not only acquired the constructed responses through this procedure but also to spelling generalized to copy trained and untrained Kanji characters. The results are discussed in terms of the effect of the CRMTS procedure on the acquisition and transfer of writing characters and the applicability of computer-based home teaching. Copyright © 2008 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
TL;DR: It is concluded that changes in infant sleep problems are unlikely to occur unless parents actually alter their management of the problems across all settings in which the problems occur.
Abstract: When treating infant sleep problems implementing treatment procedures at bedtime-only might be easier and more efficient than requiring parents to implement procedures throughout the night, but only if improvements at bedtime generalize to later in the night. This study investigated the immediate and generalized effect of treating bedtime settling problems and later night waking in infants and whether it was parent or child behavior that generalized. Parents recorded sleep problems of seven infants (6–20 months) who exhibited chronic sleep disturbance, then implemented a graduated checking procedure at bedtime-only (Setting 1). A multiple-baseline across-settings and participants design was employed. Immediate (in Setting 1) and any generalized effects (in Setting 2) on wakings and other changes in parent and child behavior were assessed by diary information and all-night infra-red video recordings. Clinically significant reductions in sleep problems were evident for five out of seven infants, but these were not consistently observed until parents generalized their use of the procedure throughout the night. There was no evidence that the infants generalized changes in self-soothing from bedtime to later. It is concluded that changes in infant sleep problems are unlikely to occur unless parents actually alter their management of the problems across all settings in which the problems occur. Copyright © 2008 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
TL;DR: In this article, the independent effects of two signals implemented during treatment with noncontingent reinforcement (NCR) were examined, and functional analyses showed that problem behavior exhibited by two individuals with developmental disabilities was sensitive to social positive reinforcement.
Abstract: The independent effects of two signals implemented during treatment with noncontingent reinforcement (NCR) were examined. First, functional analyses showed that problem behavior exhibited by two individuals with developmental disabilities was sensitive to social positive reinforcement. A reversal design was then used to compare the effectiveness of a timer (NCR-visual) to a vocal statement (NCR-vocal) indicating when the stimulus would be returned in the context of a NCR procedure. Results showed that NCR reduced problem behavior for both participants. In addition, for one participant, the NCR-visual condition reduced problem behavior to a greater degree than the NCR-vocal condition. Copyright © 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
TL;DR: In this article, the authors investigated whether the distance between the electrodes would influence the evaluation of electric shocks and whether using a variable time interval in the administration of the administration would affect the perception of electrical shocks.
Abstract: Contingent shock 19 used oil a small scale for behaviors that may lead to severe damages to one's body or to others Research efforts focus Oil exploring variables that control the evaluation of electrical shocks This study focuses oil two practical questions. that is, whether the distance between the electrodes would influence the evaluation of shock and whether using a variable time interval in the administration would influence the evaluation of shock Results reveal that both investigated variables control the evaluation of shock. Multiple shocks appear to produce a stronger sensation than single shocks, a phenomenon that was also revealed in previous studies