Showing papers in "British Journal of Educational Psychology in 1977"
TL;DR: The authors found that the distinction between holistic and atomistic cognitive approaches was consistent over different occasions when students were asked to read and to recall their knowledge of the two texts in the experiment.
Abstract: SUMMARY. Detailed information was collected by interview from a sample of 30 first-year education students, who took part in a learning experiment and described their approaches to their normal studies. It was found that the distinction between holistic and atomistic cognitive approaches was consistent over different occasions when students were asked to read and to recall their knowledge of the two texts in the experiment. This concept of cognitive approach also had a functional relationship with academic attainment, helping to explain not only examination success, but also other aspects of the students' approaches to studying.
289 citations
TL;DR: Lack of interest in the text, efforts to adapt to expected test demands, and high test anxiety were all found to increase the tendency towards surface-processing and ineffective, reproductive attempts at recall, but an adaptive approach allied to strong interest and low anxiety produced a high proportion of deep-level approaches with good factual recall.
Abstract: SUMMARY. Eighty-one students were asked to read an article under different conditions of extrinsic and intrinsic motivation. The conditions were varied by choosing the sample so as to make the article relevant or irrelevant to contrasting subgroups, thus attempting to control the level of intrinsic motivation. The test conditions were varied to increase ego-involvement and threat to self-esteem in one situation, while providing a situation for other subgroups which was supportive and non-demanding. The qualitative differences in learning process and outcomes and the quantitative differences in recall of factual knowledge were investigated in relation to the various experimental subgroups created. Self-reports on trait and state test-anxiety, and the extent to which the students had actually experienced the types of motivation intended to be produced by experimental manipulation, were also investigated in relation to qualitative and quantitative differences in learning. Lack of interest in the text, efforts to adapt to expected test demands, and high test anxiety, were all found to increase the tendency towards surface-processing and ineffective, reproductive attempts at recall. However, an adaptive approach allied to strong interest and low anxiety produced a high proportion of deep-level approaches with good factual recall.
288 citations
TL;DR: Though the presented reading ages are with reference to hearing norms, other criteria for assessing the reading performance of deaf children are discussed.
Abstract: Summary Almost every child aged 15–16 1/2 years being educated in schools for the deaf and partially hearing in England and Wales, was given Brimer's Wide-Span Reading Test which assesses prose comprehension After excluding certain categories of children, results were available for 355 children With degree of hearing loss as the main independent variable, results are presented in terms of mean and median reading age, and in reading age percentile form Reading is significantly affected by degree of deafness and by non-verbal intelligence Though the presented reading ages are with reference to hearing norms, other criteria for assessing the reading performance of deaf children are discussed
87 citations
TL;DR: In this article, the existential status of operatory structures, the relation between logicality and understanding, and the representativeness of the tasks are questioned, and it is argued that the limitations and constraints implicit in the theory seriously threaten its usefulness in practical situations.
Abstract: Summary. AS a result of eight years' experience of Piagetian research and subsequent work as a practising psychologist, certain aspects of Piaget's theories are criticised. In particular the existential status of operatory structures, the relation between logicality and understanding, and the representativeness of the tasks are questioned. Piagetian theory is seen as forcing the psychologist to adopt an artificially detached and one-sidedly cognitive attitude towards children, and to focus interest entirely on very abstract aspects of performance. While accepting the historical importance of Piaget's contributions, it is argued that the limitations and constraints implicit in the theory seriously threaten its usefulness in practical situations.
85 citations
TL;DR: It is concluded that Piaget's search for generalities in cognitive development has been unsuccessful, and that an approach based upon a skill-integration model might be more profitable.
Abstract: Summary. The relationships between Piaget's theory and education are discussed. The accumulated data from studies based upon the theory are examined in terms of (i) shared assumptions which govern the interpretation of replication studies, (ii) the extent to which a stage can be meaningfully defined, and (iii) the nature of the developmental process proposed by the theory.
It is concluded that Piaget's search for generalities in cognitive development has been unsuccessful, and that an approach based upon a skill-integration model might be more profitable.
65 citations
TL;DR: A group of profoundly deaf 15-year-old subjects with no other handicap and of average non-verbal intelligence were given a lip-reading test and performance was significantly better when they read the test items from print.
Abstract: Summary. A group of profoundly deaf 15-year-old subjects with no other handicap and of average non-verbal intelligence were given a lip-reading test. The same test was given to comparable hearing subjects ‘deafened’ by white noise masking. The difference between the groups was not significant. Performance of the deaf subjects (and the hearing) was, however, significantly better when they read the test items from print. The implication is that the relatively poor lip-reading ability of the deaf subjects was not because of linguistic impairment.
51 citations
TL;DR: In this paper, a study was designed to replicate and extend Roberts' efforts at classifying computational errors, which resulted in the identification of eight types of errors, two of which corresponded to error types described by Roberts.
Abstract: Summary. This study was designed to replicate and extend Roberts' efforts at classifying computational errors. 198 third- and sixth-grade pupils were administered an 84-item arithmetic computation test. Those items identified as having incorrect responses were analysed to infer probable student approaches or misconceptions leading to those responses. According to their commonalities, these inferences were clustered to form error types. This procedure resulted in the identification of eight types of errors, two of which corresponded to error types described by Roberts. These were basic fact, grouping, inappropriate inversion, incorrect operation, defective algorithm, incomplete algorithm, identity and zero errors. Finally, examining the distribution of errors according to these eight types led to several tentative generalisations.
47 citations
TL;DR: In this paper, the Neale analysis of reading ability was used to test image persistence in visual sensory (iconic) memory, and 36 9-year-old children were given a test of image persistence, and the reading test gave scores for fluency, accuracy and comprehension.
Abstract: Summary 36 9-year-old children were given a test of image persistence in visual sensory (iconic) memory, and the Neale Analysis of Reading Ability In the iconic memory test the subjects viewed a white disc in a tachistoscope and were required to state whether or not the disc disappeared for a short interval which ranged from 10 ms to 800 ms The shortest disappearance perceived was taken as a measure of icon persistence The reading test gave scores for fluency, accuracy and comprehension All three measures of reading performance were found to be significantly related to icon persistence Short and long image persistence resulted in a reading age on the accuracy score that was on average 175 years below that for moderate persistence
28 citations
TL;DR: In this article, a number of theoretical and methodological suggestions are made to improve models of classroom typification and interaction for both psychologists and sociologists, and an amalgamation of the models is proposed.
Abstract: SUMMARY. Recent work on the process of typification and person perception in teacher-pupil relations is subjected to critical scrutiny. The similarities between several models, based on different methods and disciplines, are examined and an amalgamation of the models is proposed. It is argued that current models exhibit a number of important defects, especially in relation to contextual variations in typification and the changes in typification over time. A number of theoretical and methodological suggestions are made to improve models of classroom typification and interaction for both psychologists and sociologists.
26 citations
TL;DR: A content analysis of responses to the "Circles" test, designed to elicit information about sex-typing, was developed on a pilot sample of 10- to 11-year-old school children as mentioned in this paper.
Abstract: Summary. A content analysis of responses to the ’Circles’; test, designed to elicit information about sex-typing, was developed on a pilot sample of 10- to 11-year-old school children. When this analysis was applied to the main sample, characteristic sex-typed response patterns were broadly replicated, as was the finding that there was no sex difference in total Fluency scores. When instructed to adopt opposite-sex response styles on a parallel form of the same test, boys and girls in the main study showed a remarkable ability to reverse their normal patterns of response. The hypothesis that children with high Fluency scores under normal conditions would be more capable of carrying out this reversal than those with low Fluency scores was not supported. It is argued that sex-typed response styles are by no means unmodifiable psychological characteristics, and that investigations of individual differences in cognition need to emphasise styles, as well as levels, of test performance.
24 citations
TL;DR: A method for analysing this change is developed and applied to Rushton's (1969) data from his longitudinal study of 266 children of above-average intelligence, whom he tested at 10–11 years and again at 15–16 years of age.
Abstract: Summary. Correlations between extraversion and ability typically change from positive to negative at about 13–14 years. A method for analysing this change is developed and applied to Rushton's (1969) data from his longitudinal study of 266 children of above-average intelligence, whom he tested at 10–11 years and again at 15–16 years of age. Correlations between extraversion and relative decrease in English and in mathematics are found and attributed to an association between introversion and study. A correlation between intelligence and relative decrease in extraversion is found and attributed to a persistent earliness versus lateness of development. An appendix indicates a statistical proof and provides convenient formulae.
TL;DR: In a study of play activities, 60 middle-class children, ages 2.8-5.8 were tested on six object substitution tasks, three dealt with puzzle games and three with pretence games.
Abstract: Summary. In a study of play activities, 60 middle-class children, ages 2.8–5.8 were tested on six object substitution tasks. Of these, three dealt with puzzle games and three with pretence games. On both sets of tasks the substitute objects ranged from suitable to highly unsuitable ones. The results indicated that object substitution on the pretence games was more extensive than the substitution of parts on the puzzle games. The selections on both games, however, were rule-governed and orderly in terms of the sequence and type of object selection, beginning with the most suitable ones and declining when only unsuitable ones were available.
TL;DR: In this paper, the effects of a previous play experience on a test of concept formation involving base four arithmetic were assessed. But the results showed that children in group one gained a greater insight into the task and remembered the information more effectively in short-term.
Abstract: Summary. The aim of the study was to assess the effects of a previous play experience on a test of concept formation involving base four arithmetic. Twenty-four children from 10 to 12 years of age were divided into three groups of eight subjects each, matched on teachers' ratings of mathematical ability. A concept formation task was given as an initial measure of ability. Members of group one were permitted total autonomy as to which buttons they pressed on a specially designed toy whose operation embodied base four rules; members of group two were yoked to members of group one so that they observed the same sequence of information; members of group three had no experience with the toy. Each subject was then administered a further concept formation task which involved the same rules existing in the ‘toy.’ The results showed that group one gained a greater insight into the task and remembered the information more effectively in the short-term. Suggestions for further research are made.
TL;DR: In this article, teaching procedures designed to improve children's divergent thinking abilities were administered to two classes of 9- and 10-year-old children, one formal and one informal, for one morning per week over a period of six weeks.
Abstract: Summary. Teaching procedures designed to improve children's divergent thinking abilities were administered to two classes of 9- and 10-year-old children, one formal and one informal, for one morning per week over a period of six weeks. Parallel classes covered the same material but without the emphasis on divergent production. The results suggest that appropriate teaching procedures can play a significant part in enhancing children's divergent thinking abilities, particularly verbal abilities. Similar improvements were attained in both types of experimental class.
TL;DR: The authors found that spelling difficulty was a function of word frequency but not of regularity of orthography, and the relation of word type to spelling performance was found to be positively associated with verbal-intellectual ability.
Abstract: SUMMARY. With one exception, all of the phonetic and non-phonetic spelling errors of a sample of 93 13- and 14-year-old boys loaded significantly on a general factor, described as verbal-intellectual ability. Auditory sequential memory had a moderate loading on this factor, but visual sequential memory did not load significantly on any of the six factors. Analyses of the relation of word type to spelling performance indicated that spelling difficulty was a function of word frequency but not of regularity of orthography.
TL;DR: The results underline the necessity for comprehensive control data on materials used in studies of cognitive development and suggest that boys' sub-groups were distinguished by changes in performance scores alone whereas for girls both performance and verbal quotients deviated equally.
Abstract: Summary 72 boys and 72 girls at age 4½ years were tested on the WPPSI Boys out-scored girls significantly on Mazes Twenty per cent of the children had discrepancies between the Verbal and Performance sub-scales of 15 points or more Low verbal and low performance sub-groups were equally represented across sexes; but their location with respect to normative sub-scale scores was not Boys' sub-groups were distinguished by changes in performance scores alone whereas for girls both performance and verbal quotients deviated equally The results underline the necessity for comprehensive control data on materials used in studies of cognitive development
TL;DR: In this article, the results of planned comparisons between error scores in different forms of the sentences, together with analysis of types of error showed a strong tendency to revert to familiar sentences in the face of novel versions.
Abstract: Summary. Sentences taken from a particular first ‘reader’ in a well-known school reading scheme, together with variants of these sentences, were read by a sample of 5-year-old children whose reading skills enabled them to attempt the task. Twenty-four children, 12 of each sex, were selected from each of two very different schools using the reading scheme. The results of planned comparisons between error scores in different forms of the sentences, together with analysis of types of error showed a strong tendency to revert to familiar sentences in the face of novel versions. There were also signs of early steps in perceiving the letter/word coding of written language. Knowledge of spoken language and of the elements of a phonic approach seemed of little relevance at this very early stage of reading. Reading strategies suggested by this study have already been reported with limited samples of children and learning contexts, and this study tends to show their relative independence of both materials and methods of teaching. Implications for an understanding of early reading and for approaches to instruction are discussed.
TL;DR: This article found that no significant differences in liking for mathematics and in views about the difficulty of learning mathematics were found between students who had followed a modern or traditional mathematics curriculum, but that attitudes to mathematics were strongly correlated with students' mathematical bias as inferred from their choice of sixth-form subjects.
Abstract: SUMMARY. Attitudes towards mathematics of over 300 first-year sixth-form students were studied in relation to the type of mathematics curriculum previously followed by them, to their choice of sixth-form courses and the students' intelligence, personality and mathematical achievement. The main findings are that no significant differences in liking for mathematics and in views about the difficulty of learning mathematics were found between students who had followed a ‘modern’ or ‘traditional’ mathematics curriculum, but that attitudes to mathematics were strongly correlated with students' mathematical bias as inferred from their choice of sixth-form subjects. As an additional aspect of the study, students' preferences for different modes of presenting mathematical information were examined, with three presentation modes being used: symbolic, graphical and verbal. Students' mathematical bias was found to be strongly associated with preference for the symbolic communication mode and anti-preference for the verbal mode.
TL;DR: Those at the lower end of IQ, scholastic aptitude, and reading ability distributions are selected and found no difference in the frequency of handedness for this subgroup.
Abstract: SUMMARY. Previously reported work on laterality and intellectual abilities has suggested that the left-handed may be divided into two populations. When right- and left-handed are compared as groups on measures of intellectual performance, no differences are found. However, when children at the extreme lower end of the ability distributions are compared, a slight excess of left-handed has been reported. The present study selected, from a population of 7688 children, those at the lower end of IQ, scholastic aptitude, and reading ability distributions and found no difference in the frequency of handedness for this subgroup. Left-handed children are as likely to be at the upper end on an ability distribution as the lower end.
TL;DR: It is contended that the reading retardation associated with cross-laterality is a specific manifestation of a general limitation in any kind of information processing.
Abstract: Summary. The performance of 10 cross-lateral children was compared with a control group of 10 uni-lateral children on short-term information processing tasks using three types of units—digits, letters and symbols. The tasks consisted of presenting different numbers of units of information simultaneously by tachistoscopic exposure. The cross-lateral group took significantly longer to identify accurately the information presented: their performance significantly deteriorated as the information load was increased from three to five units. The cross-lateral group was also significantly inferior to the matched control group on reading age. It is contended that the reading retardation associated with cross-laterality (which is indicative of ill-established cerebral dominance) is a specific manifestation of a general limitation in any kind of information processing.
TL;DR: It is concluded that Piaget's insistence on physical activity, and his dismissal of observation, are excessive.
Abstract: Summary. Piaget has stated that the child's active manipulation of objects is a necessary part of teaching for intellectual development. But this appears to be contrary to empirical evidence. From a review of literature, it is concluded that Piaget's insistence on physical activity, and his dismissal of observation, are excessive.
TL;DR: In this article, the assumptions of Jensen's theory of Level 1 ability are examined in the light of recent research on memory and the effects of subject-initiated learning strategies.
Abstract: Summary. The assumptions of Jensen's theory of Level 1 ability are examined in the light of recent research on memory. Experimental studies of organisation in both serial and free recall, as well as factor analytic investigations of sequential memory indicate that the current theory requires revision in order to accommodate recent findings. Any revision should include the effects of subject-initiated learning strategies, and give more consideration to the nature of transforming processes.
TL;DR: The reading and mathematics performance of five groups of primary school age children (four of which were receiving special education in various forms) were compared longitudinally using a nationally representative sample as mentioned in this paper.
Abstract: Summary. The reading and mathematics performance of five groups of primary school age children (four of which were receiving special education in various forms) were compared longitudinally using a nationally representative sample. The various educational provisions were evaluated taking into account the earlier placement and performance of the children. There was little difference in the reading progress of ESN(M) children in ordinary and special schools although the latter made more progress in mathematics. The results also suggested that children receiving some help within normal schools made most progress.
TL;DR: Analysis of covariance, using level of achievement as the covariate, of scores on items in original and reversed order forms, showed no evidence of differences in the proportions of students choosing the correct response which might be attributed to the effects of candidate fatigue or time limitations.
Abstract: Summary. Four multiple choice tests were set to groups of between 80 and 103 Advanced level chemistry students in their original form or with the items in reversed order. Analysis of the pattern of responses showed that the students seemed able to complete these tests in the time available. Analysis of covariance, using level of achievement (as measured by score in an A-level multiple choice test) as the covariate, of scores on items in original and reversed order forms, showed no evidence of differences in the proportions of students choosing the correct response which might be attributed to the effects of candidate fatigue or time limitations.
TL;DR: The results showed that none of the interactions involving neuroticism was significant, and indicated that the significant interaction involving extraversion and chronological age was not due to the parallel effects of verbal intelligence, non-verbal intelligence or background knowledge.
Abstract: Summary. A sample of 741 students worked through a self-instructional chemistry programme after completing tests of extraversion, neuroticism, verbal intelligence, non-verbal intelligence and background knowledge in chemistry. The existence of significant interactions involving extra-version and neuroticism with the measures of chronological age, intelligence and background knowledge in determining post-test performance was then investigated. The results showed that none of the interactions involving neuroticism was significant, and indicated that the significant interaction involving extraversion and chronological age was not due to the parallel effects of verbal intelligence, non-verbal intelligence or background knowledge.
TL;DR: This article examined children's use of causal and logical connectives before and after treatments based on advance organisers with social studies lessons, and found a diminution in the use of syncretic reasoning and understanding followed the experimental treatment.
Abstract: Summary. Children's use of causal and logical connectives was examined before and after treatments based on advance organisers with social studies lessons. In samples of 120 children from age-levels 6 and 10 years a diminution in the use of syncretic reasoning and understanding followed the experimental treatment. The performance of the older group was generally better than that of the younger children, supporting Piaget's concept of stage-invariant cognitive development.
TL;DR: In this article, five-year-olds were individually trained in a structured program of perspective problems and compared with a control group, the experimental group (N = 12) transferred their learning to both ‘near’ transfer tasks involving perspective-taking and ‘far' transfer tasks (other concrete operational tasks).
Abstract: SUMMARY. Five-year-olds were individually trained in a structured programme of perspective problems. Compared with a control group (N=6), the children in the experimental group (N = 12) transferred their learning to both ‘near’ transfer tasks involving perspective-taking and ‘far’ transfer tasks (other concrete operational tasks). Children trained in a matrices task (N=6) transferred their learning to other ‘near’ transfer tasks (related matrices problems), but failed to achieve higher scores than controls in the perspectives tasks. Therefore, perspective ability requires not only an operational level of thought, but also the specific skill of adopting another's viewpoint.
TL;DR: In this paper, an Australian sample (N=463) of 15-year-old girls was used in an evaluation of the Junior Eysenck Personality Inventory (JEPI) and the terminology used in various items, response rates, factorial structure, and the relationship between inventory scales.
Abstract: SUMMARY. An Australian sample (N=463) of 15-year-old girls was used in an evaluation of the Junior Eysenck Personality Inventory (JEPI). In particular, this study examined the terminology used in various items, response rates, factorial structure, and the relationship between inventory scales. Although the findings regarding item terminology and response rates may indicate a need to modify JEPI, the factorial structure and relationship between scales support the Eysenckian position.
TL;DR: In this article, the times children take to reach correct solutions to seven easy block design items from the try-out version of the British Intelligence Scale were analysed in terms of two regression models.
Abstract: Summary. The times children take to reach correct solutions to seven easy Block Design items from the try-out version of the British Intelligence Scale were analysed in terms of two regression models. The times were obtained from 395 children aged between 10 and 13 years, each of whom had a score of four or more on the full 16-item test. The simpler of the two models was found to be the most satisfactory, the model specifying that the time to correct solution of a person on a test item is a proportional function of the difficulty of the item and a single parameter describing the speed of the person. Individual speed parameters were estimated for each child and were analysed in terms of an age X ability analysis of variance. This analysis indicated highly significant main effects, speed increasing with both age and ability. There was no interaction between age and ability. Results were related to previous findings and supported a view of mental speed as a major component of ability.
TL;DR: This article found that referential adequacy increased markedly with mental age and that the inadequacy of descriptions given by the less mature subjects was largely due to their neglect of the immediate perceived context of the referent.
Abstract: Summary. Two experiments are described which are concerned with the development of referential ability in children. In the first, children of normal and of subnormal educational attainment, aged between 4 and 12 years, were asked to describe simple actions. Referential adequacy increased markedly with mental age. The inadequacy of descriptions given by the less mature subjects was largely due to their neglect of the immediate perceived context of the referent.
The second experiment, using children in the mental age range of 5 to 7 years, provided evidence that the less mature children's descriptions were significantly less affected by the context than were those of the 7-year-olds of normal intelligence. It is suggested that this aspect of referential ability results from general cognitive decentration.