Showing papers in "Educational Psychologist in 2000"

Sociocultural and Constructivist Theories of Learning: Ontology, Not Just Epistemology

Abstract: There is something of a controversy taking place over how best to theorize human learning. This article joins the debate over the relation between sociocultural and constructivist perspectives on learning. These 2 perspectives differ not just in their conceptions of knowledge (epistemological assumptions) but also in their assumptions about the known world and the knowing human (ontological assumptions). Articulated in this article are 6 themes of a nondualist ontology seen at work in the sociocultural perspective, and suggested is a reconciliation of the 2. This article proposes that learning involves becoming a member of a community, constructing knowledge at various levels of expertise as a participant, but also taking a stand on the culture of one's community in an effort to take up and overcome the estrangement and division that are consequences of participation. Learning entails transformation both of the person and of the social world. This article explores the implications of this view of learning...

Reading and Writing Relations and Their Development

Abstract: A brief retrospective is first provided on the study of reading and writing relations. Next, it is suggested that research has supported the theoretical contention that reading and writing rely on analogous mental processes and isomorphic knowledge. Four basic types of shared knowledge are delineated. Then, reasons are articulated about why it is also important to consider the separability of reading and writing. Further, over time, as reading and writing are learned, the nature of their relation changes. A description is then offered of a preliminary developmental outlook on the relation of reading and writing. The article concludes with theoretical and practical implications for use of a developmental model.

The Role of Self-Regulation and Transcription Skills in Writing and Writing Development

Abstract: It is proposed that the development of writing competence depends on high levels of self-regulation and the mastery of low-level transcription skills. Predictions consistent with each of these claims are identified and evaluated. Although the available data are incomplete and many key findings require further replication, the accumulated evidence generally supports both of these propositions.

Using Hierarchical Linear Modeling to Study Social Contexts: The Case of School Effects

Abstract: This article focuses on a particular educational context, the school, and how characteristics of the structure and organization of high schools influence students' academic development. The emphasis is on a type of quantitative inquiry called school effects research. It describes a methodology that is most appropriate for conducting studies of school effects in particular and educational contexts in general: hierarchical linear modeling (HLM). Two previously published studies are used as heuristic examples of school effects studies conducted with HLM methods. Both studies use large and nationally representative longitudinal data from the National Education Longitudinal Study of 1988 to explore school effects on learning and its social distribution by student socioeconomic status. Study 1 focuses on the effects of high school size on learning. Study 2 focuses on how teachers' attitudes, taken as a collective property of the social organization of schools, influence both learning and its social distribution...

Peer Groups as a Context for the Socialization of Adolescents' Motivation, Engagement, and Achievement in School

Abstract: Examining the extent, nature, and scope of peer group influence on academic outcomes is an important direction for future research to enrich our understanding of adolescent motivation, engagement, and achievement. Conceptual and methodological issues involved in studying peer groups are discussed. Existing research that addresses the influence of peer groups on academic outcomes is reviewed. Processes of how peer groups socialize achievement beliefs and behaviors are considered. Promising directions for future research are discussed.

Developing Motivation to Write

Abstract: Two decades of cognitive research have shown writing to be a highly fluid process of problem solving requiring constant monitoring of progress toward task goals. Becoming an able writer brings great intellectual and social rewards, but the extended nature and difficulty of this process create unique motivational challenges. Speech development provides some models for development of writing motivation, but writing requires special attention to motivational conditions. Four clusters of conditions are proposed as keys to developing motivation: nurturing functional beliefs about writing, fostering engagement using authentic writing tasks, providing a supportive context for writing, and creating a positive emotional environment. Teachers' own conceptions of writing are seen as crucial to establishing these conditions in most writing contexts. Systematic motivational research complementing our knowledge about the cognitive processes of writing is needed to understand the development of motivation to write.

Creating Usable Innovations in Systemic Reform: Scaling Up Technology-Embedded Project-Based Science in Urban Schools

Abstract: This article describes work by a research group bringing a middle-school inquiry and technology science innovation to scale in a systemic urban school reform setting. We distinguish between scaling and scaling within systemic reform. We pose a framework for use by developers of instructional interventions to gauge their "fit" with existing school capabilities, policy and management structures, and organizational culture, and illustrate how the framework exemplifies our experiences. We present challenges for researchers to consider as they attempt to create usable innovations and facilitate their adoption, enactment, and maintenance by school systems. Finally, we call for new approaches to the study of these problems outlining how systemic innovation challenges traditional evaluation and experimental methods.

Knowledge, Processing, and Working Memory: Implications for a Theory of Writing

Abstract: This article surveys writing research and attempts to sketch a principled account of how multiple sources of knowledge, stored in long-term memory, are coordinated during writing within the constraints of working memory. The concept of long-term working memory is applied to the development of writing expertise. Based on research reviewed, it is speculated that lack of fluent language generation processes constrains novice writers within short-term working memory capacity, whereas fluent encoding and extensive knowledge allow skilled writers to take advantage of long-term memory resources via long-term working memory.

Using Video Surveys to Compare Classrooms and Teaching Across Cultures: Examples and Lessons From the TIMSS Video Studies

Abstract: The video survey is a promising new approach for studying classrooms and teaching across cultures. Drawing from experience in working with two cross-cultural video surveys, the Third International Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS) and its follow-up study (TIMSS-R), this article presents some of the challenges of studying classrooms across cultures and some of the ways that the video survey can deal with these challenges. The article begins by identifying some of the issues in cross-cultural research and classroom surveys that led to the creation of the video survey. Examples from the TIMSS and the TIMSS-R video studies are then used to illustrate some benefits and limitations of video surveys and to share some of the lessons that were learned about studying classrooms across cultures.

Constructing Extended Inquiry Projects: Curriculum Materials for Science Education Reform

Abstract: (2000). Constructing Extended Inquiry Projects: Curriculum Materials for Science Education Reform. Educational Psychologist: Vol. 35, No. 3, pp. 165-178.

Studying and Understanding the Instructional Contexts of Classrooms: Using our Past to Forge our Future

Abstract: The video survey is a promising new approach for studying classrooms and teaching across cultures. Drawing from experience in working with two cross-cultural video surveys, the Third International Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS) and its follow-up study (TIMSS-R), this article presents some of the challenges of studying classrooms across cultures and some of the ways that the video survey can deal with these challenges. The article begins by identifying some of the issues in cross-cultural research and classroom surveys that led to the creation of the video survey. Examples from the TIMSS and the TIMSS-R video studies are then used to illustrate some benefits and limitations of video surveys and to share some of the lessons that were learned about studying classrooms across cultures.

Emotions and Self-Regulation During Test Taking

Abstract: Lifelong, self-regulated learning has been a topic of considerable interest in educational psychology. However, one area of self-regulation that has received less attention is the process of regulating emotions. The goal of this article is to explicate a model of self-regulation that incorporates recent theory and research on emotions and emotional regulation. From the perspective presented, emotions and our regulation of them are directly involved in self-regulation and, therefore, need to play a more important role in current research and theory on the nature of goal-directed, lifelong, self-regulated learning. A general model of self-regulation is described, followed by a discussion of current views about the nature of emotional regulation during test taking. This is followed by a discussion of research during the phases of test taking. Finally, conclusions and areas for future research are discussed.

Educational Psychology at the Millennium: A Look Back and a Look Forward

Abstract: (2000). Educational Psychology at the Millennium: A Look Back and a Look Forward. Educational Psychologist: Vol. 35, No. 4, pp. 221-226.

Society's Child: Social Context and Writing Development

Abstract: This article draws from discussions that have been taking place over the last 20 years concerning the interplay of social contextual research and theory and knowledge about writing development. Beginning with a survey of these academic discussions and then detailing what this theory suggests through an examination of the academic literature and classroom examples, the article suggests that writing development is (a) reflective of social historical contexts, (b) variable across local contexts, (c) reflective of classroom curriculum and pedagogy, (d) shaped by social interactions, (e) tied to social identities, and (f) conceptualized as a nonlinear process. It then argues that a social contextual stance on writing development shifts perspective not away from the individual writer and the individual product, but toward seeing that writer and text in multiple contexts that complicate our understanding of writing process.

Teacher Education Does Matter: A Situative View of Learning to Teach Secondary Mathematics

Abstract: The visions of mathematics classrooms called for by current educational reform efforts pose great challenges for kindergarten through Grade 12 schools and teacher education programs. Although a number of colleges and universities throughout the country are making changes in their teacher education programs to reflect these reform recommendations, we have little systematic information on the nature of these programs or their impact on prospective teachers. These issues are of central concern in the study-Learning to Teach Secondary Mathematics in Two Reform-Based Teacher Education Programs-that we draw on in this article. The article focuses on 1 preservice teacher's (Ms. Savant) knowledge, beliefs, and practices related to proof, tasks, and discourse. A situative perspective on cognition and components of teachers' professional knowledge frame our research. We examined data on Ms. Savant's experiences in her teacher education program to understand the influences of teacher education on her development as ...

Educational Psychology in Teacher Education

Abstract: Over the years, educational psychology has been a part of teacher preparation, moving from a centerpiece in many programs, through periods when it was deemed irrelevant by some, to current concerns about its role in the reforming of teacher education and teaching Today, psychological knowledge is used to ground reforms in teaching and schooling, particularly the call for teaching for understanding Current standards for teacher certifications and licensure and suggestions for reform in teacher education assume that teachers will have a deep and generative understanding of learning, development, motivation, and individual differences This article explores several themes that recur in the writing on reforms and teacher standards: the need to place learning at the center of teaching, the call for integrated studies, and the value of collaboration with the public schools These themes have both positive and negative implications for the role of educational psychology in teacher education

Content-Based Collaborative Inquiry: A Professional Development Model for Sustaining Educational Reform

Abstract: In this article, we describe our professional development model, Content-Based Collaborative Inquiry (CBCI). The purpose of the CBCI model is to engage educators in inquiring and constructing their own knowledge as they focus on both student understanding in specific content areas and their own learning processes. We first explain the empirical foundations of CBCI. Through 3 cases we illustrate how content knowledge is developed via collaborative inquiry, originating in teachers' classrooms, and expanding to create and sustain collaborative communities of inquiry in the multiple contexts where educators work. We conclude by discussing challenges and continuing issues for efforts to support lifelong teacher learning and educational reform.

Considering Contexts in Educational Psychology: Introduction to the Special Issue

Abstract: The impetus for this special issue grew from our observation of an ongoing call from researchers, symposium discussants, and journal editors for increased attention to contextual effects in the study of educational psychology. For example, Goodenow (1992) argued that an ecologically valid psychology of education must include an understanding of the social and interpersonal processes that make up the social context of schooling. More recently, Pintrich (1994), in speculating about directions for research in educational psychology, included an increased focus on the role of contexts and culture in shaping students’ cognitions as a major issue that confronts research activities in the field. Similarly, Solomon (1995) noted that the traditionally espoused assumption that “most if not all that is important and interesting in educational psychology lies in the study of the decontextualized individual” (p. 105), which underlies much of the work in our field, needs to be seriously revised. Solomon went on to suggest that there is a growing demand for greater ecological validity and practical relevance of our research and that these demands require that we change our focus to include individuals “within wider psychological, disciplinary, social and cultural contexts” (p. 106). In part, educational psychologists’ interest in contexts reflects trends in the study of cognitive development that emphasize the social nature of human learning (e.g., Rogoff, 1990; Tharp & Gallimore, 1988; Wertsch, 1985). It also reflects the growth of interdisciplinary research programs and the influence of theory and research in fields such as social psychology and sociology. Whereas many researchers now agree with the importance of considering context in their work, the challenges of doing so are many. One set of challenges revolves around conceptual issues related to what context is and how persons and situations interact. A second but related set of challenges involves methodological issues in terms of how to go about measuring and analyzing contextual effects. Goodenow (1992) noted that educational psychologists need to add to the methods they typically use. More specifically, we need to incorporate other methods more traditionally used in fields such as sociology, sociolinguistics, and anthropology. In putting this special issue together, we selected authors who are grappling with these issues in their own work. As is readily apparent, each brings a different approach to the study of contexts, including utilizing widely varying definitions, theoretical perspectives, and methodologies. In each article, the authors discuss both conceptual and methodological challenges they have faced in their ongoing research programs, using examples from recent studies for illustration.

Implementation Research as a Means to Link Systemic Reform and Applied Psychology in Mathematics Education

Abstract: To link reform efforts in science and mathematics education to the research on student cognition, researchers must engage in an understanding of systemic change. This article reports on an initiative linking a university research team and an urban high-school mathematics department in efforts to improve student learning. The article explores the ideas of systemic reform and implementation research in which researchers partner with teachers and schools over sustained periods of time to implement reform initiatives. It reports on the implementation of an 8-week replacement unit in all Algebra I classes and describes its results. It also provides an example of student and teacher learning with technology on a central concept of rate of change and discusses how those interviews illustrate differences in student and teacher learning. We discuss how cognitive research needs to be transformed to be successfully applied toward improvement within the challenges and opportunities of urban schools.

Incorporating Economic Context Into Educational Psychology: Methodological and Conceptual Challenges

Abstract: This article considers some of the issues involved in incorporating economic context into the work of educational psychologists. Section 1 is based on a content analysis of articles published in the Journal of Educational Psychology between 1994 and 1998. The analysis focuses on the measurement strategies utilized to assess socioeconomic status (SES), the social status of the research participants, and the use of SES in data analysis. In Section 2, numerous indexes of SES are described and reviewed. The article concludes by discussing several ways that SES might be treated during data analysis, with a focus on the theoretical assumptions inherent in the various strategies.

Writing Development: Introduction to the Special Issue

Abstract: Writing has a long and storied history. More than 5,000 years ago, the Sumerians devised a system of writing, called cuneiform, that allowed them to list and record goods by using a wedge-shape reed stylus to make impressions on a moist clay tablet. From this initial record-keeping debut, writing has evolved to become one of humankind’s most powerful tools (Swerdlow, 1999). Among its many functions, it has provided a flexible medium for artistic, political, spiritual, and self-expression. For example, ideas expressed in writing have been used as a means for both formulating revolution (see Thomas Paine’s pamphlet, Common Sense ) and maintaining national cohesion (see Chairman Mao’s Little Red Book ). Just as important, writing provides an external memory, making it easier for us to remember, analyze, and share our ideas and thoughts. Writing can even have therapeutic effects, as writing about one’s feelings can reduce depression, lower blood pressure, and boost the immune system (Swerdlow, 1999). Although the scientific study of writing has a much shorter history, totaling no more than 100 years, there has been considerable discussion and research during the last 2 decades about the factors that contribute to writing proficiency and its development (Hayes, 1996). It is generally agreed that competence, and ultimately expertise, in writing is dependent on a broad array of cognitive, motivational, social, and contextual factors. In this special issue of the Educational Psychologist , the influence of each of these areas is examined. First, Graham and Harris evaluate the proposition that the development of writing competence depends on high levels of self-regulation (see, e.g., models by Hayes & Flowers, 1980; Zimmerman & Riesemberg, 1997) as well as the mastery of low-level transcription skills (see, e.g., arguments by Berninger, Fuller, & Whitaker, 1996), concluding that the available evidence generally supports this thesis. Second, McCutchen presents a developmental model, based on current empirical findings, that describes how multiple sources of knowledge, stored in long-term memory, are coordinated during writing within the constraints of working memory. The focus of the third article shifts from cognitive to motivational factors, as Bruning and Horn consider the conditions that contribute to the development of writing motivation. Fourth, Fitzgerald and Shanahan construct a preliminary developmental model of writing and reading relations, which details the cognitive features or markers that are critical to obtaining proficiency in both of these areas. Finally, Schultz and Fecho examine how social and contextual variables influence writing and its development. Because of space limitations, not all aspects of writing development could be addressed in this special issue. Even if more space were available, it is important to realize that current descriptions, models, and theories of writing development are incomplete. As Hayes (1996) noted, “Some parts have begun to take definite shape ... Other parts are being actively designed and still others have barely been sketched” (p. 1). Taken together, the articles in this special issue provide substance and structure to some of the more important aspects of writing development. It is our hope that they will serve as a springboard for additional discussion, study, and analysis.

School Reform and Research in Educational Psychology

Abstract: The past 2 decades have been witness to an enormous amount of energy directed toward the reform and improvement of education in the United States and, indeed, worldwide. There are many reasons for this activity. In the 1980s, many were concerned that the United States’ economy was falling behind the rest of the industrialized world. Also during the 1980s and early 1990s, the growing strength of the conservative political movement crystallized ideological differences concerning the role of education in national renewal. More recently, there has been growing realization that schooling needs to be reoriented in the face of new information and communications technologies that promise to dramatically alter the world’s economy and possibly the nature of the nation state. As we enter the new millennium, the focus on school reform continues unabated. New solutions are gaining support. For example, the movement to create market forces as mechanisms for change through programs such as school vouchers or public charter schools, although not a new idea, is gaining strength through more widespread adoptions in many states. Also over the past quarter century, research and development in educational psychology has made considerable progress in providing conceptions of learning and motivation that bear considerable promise. The National Research Council’s (NRC) recent summary of this work (Bransford, Brown, & Cocking, 1999) demonstrates that knowledge in the field is ready for broader application. Although much basic research is still needed, it is clear from the NRC summary along with other recent research syntheses (Bruer, 1993) that bold research-based programs can be launched to help address urgent needs in education. With funding from agencies such as the National Science Foundation, the Office of Educational Research and Improvement, and private philanthropic educational foundations, researchers have taken up the challenge of crafting new programs of research and development, often in collaboration with kindergarten through Grade-12 educators. This special issue of the Educational Psychologist has been designed to report some of these new efforts. The five articles represent only a small collection of this work, but they can provide educational psychologists with a sample of the exciting work underway in this area. The first article, by Blumenfeld, Fishman, Krajcik, Marx, and Soloway at the University of Michigan, provides a framework for understanding how instructional research, when created in close collaboration with school district educators, can produce useful perspectives on the application of research in educational psychology. Of particular note in this article is that the researchers are part of the school district’s middle-school science reform effort, not distinct from it. The following article, by Singer, Marx, Krajcik, and Clay Chambers comes from the same research group. In this article, Singer and his colleagues show how a central element of school reform, classroom curriculum, and associated pedagogical practices relate to principles derived from applied psychology. The third piece, by Confrey, Castro-Filho, and Wilhelm at the University of Texas at Austin, addresses issues similar to those raised by Blumenfeld et al. Even though school reform research as practiced by instructional researchers is relatively new, many issues and perspectives raised in the Confrey et al. article begin to converge with the Blumenfeld et al. report, even though the level of schooling (middle compared to high school) and the subject matter (science compared with mathematics) are different. Recent research has argued that teachers are central to reform efforts (Wilson & Berne, 1999). The final two articles address the initial and continuing preparation of teachers. The fourth article, by Borko et al. from Colorado, describes how initial teacher preparation can be changed to educate teachers so that they can enact reform-oriented teaching of mathematics. The fifth article, by Zech, Gause-Vega, Bray, Secules, and Goldman from Vanderbilt University, describes a program of teacher professional development to support the Schools for Thought reform program for elementary schools. The collection of articles in this issue raise important research questions for the field. It is clear that these researchers do not believe that demonstrations of the effects of instructional treatments can easily be translated from laboratory and EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGIST, 35(3), 147–148 Copyright © 2000, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.