Showing papers in "Educational Technology Research and Development in 1998"
TL;DR: A new generation of computationally enhanced manipulative materials, called digital manipulatives, designed to radically change this traditional progression are discussed, to enable children to continue to learn with a kindergarten approach even as they grow older.
Abstract: In kindergartens and early-elementary classrooms, manipulative materials (such as Cuisenaire Rods and Pattern Blocks) play an important role in childrens learning, enabling children to explore mathematical and scientific concepts (such as number, shape, and size) through direct manipulation of physical objects. But as children grow older, and learn more advanced concepts, the educational focus shifts away from direct manipulation to more abstract formal methods. This paper discusses a new generation of computationally enhanced manipulative materials, called digital manipulatives, designed to radically change this traditional progression. These new manipulatives (such as programmable building bricks and communicating beads) aim to enable children to continue to learn with a kindergarten approach even as they grow olderand also to enable young children to learn concepts (in particular, systems concepts such as feedback and emergence) that were previously considered too advanced for them.
212 citations
TL;DR: In this paper, the need for learning communities within the context of asynchronous distance education is discussed, and three types of learning communities are described: academic, intellectual and interpersonal learning communities.
Abstract: Asynchronous distance education can replicate traditional face-to-face training or education; but, why should it do so? Asynchronous distance education provides an opportunity to create meaningful learning which is not feasible in a traditional classroom, provided that communities of learners that encourage knowledge building and social reinforcement are specifically created. This article describes the need for learning communities within the context of asynchronous distance education. Asynchronous learning communities are specifically relevant for training environments, given the need for instant and constant training with employees who are located in an ever-expanding national and international workplace. Specifically, three types of communities are described: academic, intellectual and interpersonal.
204 citations
TL;DR: The authors argue that technologists have tended to paper over the critical epistemological dimension of constructivism by "preauthenticating" learning environments: creating environments that are predetermined to reflect the real world even though constructivist theory contrindicates precisely this.
Abstract: Constructivism, or more precisely, a constructivist metatheory, presently prevails throughout professional education circles. Most educators easily accept constructivism's central premise that learners approach tasks with prior knowledge and expectations based on their knowledge of the world around them. Naturally, then, constructivist educational technologists have been guided by the implicit (and increasingly explicit) desire to create “authentic” environments for learning: environments that correspond to the real world. In this paper, I argue that technologists have tended to paper over the critical epistemological dimension of constructivism by “preauthenticating” learning environments: creating environments that are predetermined to reflect the real world even though constructivist theory contrindicates precisely this. I suggest that a rhetorical perspective on constructivism offers a way out of this bind and I propose some guidelines to assist developers of educational technologies in accommodating the essentially dialogic nature of teaching and learning.
168 citations
TL;DR: The architecture of the system, its current state of development, and findings from an initial deployment can help educators envisioning the role of technology in augmenting authentic forms of learning, developers of other support systems as they compare features and implications, and researchers as they frame questions about human-computer interactions in learning systems.
Abstract: Project-based learning places demands on learners and instructors that challenge the traditional practices and support structures of schools. Learning from doing complex, challenging, and authentic projects requires resourcefulness and planning by the student, new forms of knowledge representation in school, expanded mechanisms for collaboration and communication, and support for reflection and authentic assessment. This article describes a computer-mediated learning-support system designed as a suite of integrated, internet-based client-server tools to provide (a) intelligent support both for the processes of doing a project and for learning from doing a project, and (b) a shared dynamic knowledge base for working and learning in a community supporting project-based education. The article describes the architecture of the system, its current state of development, and findings from an initial deployment. This articulation of the system components and findings can benefit several groups. It can help (a) educators envisioning the role of technology in augmenting authentic forms of learning, (b) developers of other support systems as they compare features and implications, and (c) researchers as they frame questions about human-computer interactions in learning systems.
151 citations
TL;DR: In this article, the authors examine the research dealing with integrating cooperative learning strategies and computer-based instruction and provide guidelines and strategies for designing ILS instruction that enhances opportunities for cooperative learning.
Abstract: An Integrated Learning System (ILS) is an advanced computer-based instructional system, generally consisting of a set of computerized courseware covering several grade levels and content areas, and complex classroom management and reporting features. Although ILSs have become increasingly popular in schools over the past five to ten years, they introduce several potential factors that could have negative effects on students' academic and social growth. These factors include: (a) de-emphasis of affective outcomes and increased student isolation, (b) lack of teacher involvement in curriculum planning and delivery, and (c) disparate effects on student achievement based on students' academic level. One possible strategy for addressing these concerns is integrating cooperative learning with ILS instruction. This paper will examine the research dealing with integrating cooperative learning strategies and computer-based instruction and provide guidelines and strategies for designing ILS instruction that enhances opportunities for cooperative learning.
100 citations
TL;DR: An exploratory and in-depth examination of an expert teacher's thinking and teaching processes and to link those to instructional design procedures suggested that there were fundamental differences between the teacher's Thinking and Teaching processes and microinstructional design models.
Abstract: Educators in the field of instructional technology believe that Instructional Design (ID) theory and microdesign models have great potential to help teachers teach effectively. However, the available information on teachers' use of instructional design practices is not encouraging. Several professionals in the field pointed out the importance of examining research about teaching and teachers outside of the educational technology field. This study attempted to address this issue through an exploratory and in-depth examination of an expert teacher's thinking and teaching processes and to link those to instructional design procedures. The study employed a naturalistic approach which combined different methodological techniques. Data were analyzed in the constant comparative styl, which allowed categories to emerge from the data. The generated conceptual model of the teacher's thinking and teaching was then compared to microinstructional systems design models and principles. The findings suggested that there were fundamental differences between the teacher's thinking and teaching processes and microinstructional design models.
97 citations
TL;DR: This paper investigated the effects of studying alone or in cooperative learning groups on the performance of high and low achievers, using either learner- or program-controlled computer-based instruction.
Abstract: We investigated the effects of studying alone or in cooperative-learning groups on the performance of high and low achievers, using either learner- or program-controlled computer-based instruction. A total of 92 sixth-grade students were classified by Stanford Achievement Test scores and randomly assigned to group or individual treatments, stratified by achievement scores. Both high and low achievers in the cooperative treatment performed better and had more positive attitudes toward grouping than did students working individually, on both program-controlled and learner-controlled computer lessons. In addition, the cooperative-learning group exhibited significantly greater improvement from immediate to delayed post-test than did the individual-learning group. For low achievers, the greatest improvement was in the program-controlled condition, and for the high achievers, in the learner-controlled condition. The learner-controlled cooperative-learning group, compared to the learner-controlled individual-learning group, chose to check its concept learning more often and spent more time interacting with the computer-based tutorial. These results suggest that cooperative learning provides beneficial effects, and imply a need for software designers to adapt computer-based instruction for cooperative learning to the different learning styles of high-and low-achieving students.
77 citations
TL;DR: For almost 40 years, Donald Kirkpatrick's framework for evaluation has been used as a basic model for the identification and targeting of training-specific interventions in business, government, military, and industry alike.
Abstract: For almost 40 years, Donald Kirkpatrick's framework for evaluation has been used as a basic model for the identification and targeting of training-specific interventions in business, government, military, and industry alike. By approaching evaluation from four different perspectives—reaction, learning, behavior, and results—the model has provided a solid basis for the examination of training's impact on the organization. Despite the current practice of measuring one's success according to the success of one's clients, proposed changes in the model have not been frequently adopted. It is therefore likely time for professionals to reevaluate the utility and responsiveness of the Kirk-patrick framework to meet the value-added requirements of today's organizations. This article identifies tools and concepts for being responsive to the new organizational realities not originally addressed by the Kirkpatrick model.
75 citations
TL;DR: Three common patterns of teaching/ learning have emerged from faculty and students who use the three teaching/learning theaters at the University of Maryland, College Park: (a) active individual learning, (b) small-group collaborative learning, and (c) entire-class collaborative learning.
Abstract: Novel patterns of teaching/learning have emerged from faculty and students who use our three teaching/learning theaters at the University of Maryland, College Park. These fully-equipped electronic classrooms have been used by 74 faculty in 264 semester-long courses since the fall of 1991 with largely enthusiastic reception by both faculty and students. The designers of the teaching/learning theaters sought to provide a technologically rich environment and a support staff so that faculty could concentrate on changing the traditional lecture from its unidirectional information flow to a more collaborative activity. As faculty have evolved their personal styles in using the electronic classrooms, novel patterns of teaching/learning have emerged. In addition to enhanced lectures, we identified three common patterns: (a) active individual learning, (b) small-group collaborative learning, and (c) entire-class collaborative learning.
67 citations
TL;DR: In this article, two instructional designers were provided with formative evaluation data from the sources recommended in the literature and were asked to revise a piece of instructional text while thinking aloud Their verbal protocols were recorded, transcribed, segmented and coded, using a coding scheme derived from Newell and Simon's (1972) problem-solving model.
Abstract: Two instructional designers were provided with formative evaluation data from the sources recommended in the literature and were asked to revise a piece of instructional text while thinking aloud Their verbal protocols were recorded, transcribed, segmented and coded, using a coding scheme derived from Newell and Simon's (1972) problem-solving model Relevant codes were analyzed for evidence of the characteristics of expert performers identified by Glaser and Chi (1988) and Shanteau (1992) Results were unclear when the number of coded segments in each category was counted, but examination of the content of the segments showed clearly that one of the research participants demonstrated more attributes of expertise than the other, based on the identified characteristics
56 citations
TL;DR: In this article, the authors explore the dimensions of relevance with respect to research and suggest ways the research community can accommodate the needs and interests of practicing professionals in the field of instructional technology.
Abstract: The object of inquiry in instructional technology is not simply knowledge, but useable knowledge. This paper explores the dimensions of relevance with respect to research and suggests ways the research community can accommodate the needs and interests of practicing professionals in the field. Research relevance is examined as a reflection of: (a) practitioner and disciplinary values; (b) perceived credibility, viewed in terms of authenticity, methods employed, and replicability; and (c) perceptions of utility based upon the concrete nature of the findings. Specific recommendations relate to expanding the range of topics addressed in our research, expanding the range of research methods employed, orienting our research communication to specific practitioner communities, conducting research under natural conditions, replicating research, and establishing links between abstract and concrete findings. Finally, the role of the practitioner as an educated consumer of research is discussed.
TL;DR: In this article, the authors consider three aspects of the knowledge management literature that have the potential to enhance human performance technology (HPT) research and practice and suggest related opportunities for HPT research.
Abstract: This article considers three aspects of the knowledge management (KM) literature that have the potential to enhance human performance technology (HPT) research and practice. First, we believe the recent attempt by economists to describe and quantify intellectual capital can help HPT to better evaluate and defend organizational expenditures/investments for performance improvement initiatives. Second, the emerging KM literature explores the linkages between information, learning and performance, provides a common point of intersection for our fields, and can enhance our analysis and implementation of information (as opposed to training) solutions as well as inform and expand our conceptual and theoretical understanding. Third, we have observed that both KM and HPT practitioners are increasingly concerned with the learning that takes place outside the confines of traditional formal training environments. We briefly review the electronic performance support systems literature from HPT and KM, noting the similarities in epistemology, design, and interventions. Finally, we highlight the KM research agenda and suggest related opportunities for HPT research.
TL;DR: This article investigated the effect of implementing cooperative versus individual learning and orienting activities during computer-based instruction (CBI) and found that dyads that received objectives exhibited significantly more on-task group behaviors, more helping behaviors, and fewer off-task behaviors than dyads in the other orienting activity conditions.
Abstract: The purpose of this study was to investigate the effect of implementing cooperative versus individual learning and orienting activities during computer-based instruction (CBI). Cooperative dyads and individuals worked through a CBI earth science program that contained either instructional objectives, advance organizers, or no orienting activities. Results indicated that students who received instructional objectives performed significantly better on intentional posttest items than students who received either advance organizers or no orienting activities. Results also revealed that dyads that received objectives exhibited significantly more on-task group behaviors, more helping behaviors, and fewer off-task behaviors than dyads in the other orienting activity conditions. Furthermore, learning strategy influenced time on task; individuals spent significantly more time on instruction and practice than cooperative dyads. Implications for CBI developers are explored.
TL;DR: A general conclusion of this study is that the use of visual displays and contextual presentation should be based on the learning requirements of the task and the expected roles of the strategy in the learning.
Abstract: The effects of two instructional strategies, visual display and contextual presentation, were investigated in the acquisition of electronic troubleshooting skills using computer-based instruction. Three types of visual displays (animation, static graphics with motion cues, and static graphics without motion cues) were used to represent structures and functions of electronic circuits and trouble-shooting procedures. The first hypothesis was that animation would be more effective than static graphics, but that static graphics with adequate motional cues representing the dynamic aspects of the task would accomplish results similar to animation. Results supported this hypothesis. The second hypothesis was that context-dependent instruction would be more efficient than context-independent instruction for solving problems in similar contexts, but that context independent instruction would be more effective in solving problems encountered in different contexts. The results supported this hypothesis. A general conclusion of this study is that the use of visual displays and contextual presentation should be based on the learning requirements of the task and the expected roles of the strategy in the learning.
TL;DR: Subjects preferred the lean version of the program over the full one, even though the full version produced better test performance, and matching subjects to their preferred amount did not yield a significant achievement difference.
Abstract: This study examined the effects of program mode (i.e., a lean program version containing a basic amount of learner practice vs. a full mode containing expanded practice) and learner preference (matched or unmatched) for amount of practice on the achievement, time-in-program, and attitudes of university undergraduate students. Subjects completed a 10-item Likert-type prequestionnaire to indicate the amount of practice they preferred, then were randomly assigned to either the type of program they preferred or to the opposite type. Subjects who used the full version of the instructional program scored significantly higher on the posttest than those who used the lean version. Matching subjects to their preferred amount of practice did not yield a significant achievement difference over assigning subjects to their less-preferred amount. Subjects preferred the lean version of the program over the full one, even though the full version produced better test performance.
TL;DR: The authors examined the extent to which a group of superior elementary and secondary school teachers employed systematic instructional planning practices and found that most of the teachers' planning activities centered around six types of decisions.
Abstract: The purpose of this study was to examine the extent to which a group of superior elementary and secondary school teachers employed systematic instructional planning practices. The research method employed was a multicase design in which nine teachers (five secondary and four elementary) from a single school district were studied. Qualitative data in the form of written surveys and face-to-face interviews were collected and analyzed. Results revealed that most of the teachers' planning activities centered around six types of decisions. When the teachers' planning activities were compared with a systematic approach to instructional planning, the two approaches were found to be different in several important ways: the teachers did not place much emphasis on specifying objectives, creating objectives-based tests, or making other instructional decisions in light of objectives. Implications for teaching preservice teachers about systematic planning are discussed.
TL;DR: This paper examined how four methods of symbolizing data affect learning from thematic maps of familiar regions and found that map-related text information was recalled more than map-unrelated text.
Abstract: To examine how four methods of symbolizing data affect learning from thematic maps of familiar regions, two experiments were conducted. In Experiment 1, 86 college students viewed one of three types of thematic map or a control table, then read a map-related text. Recall of regions with their associated theme information was greater for those who studied a map than for those who studied a table. In Experiment 2, 83 college students viewed one of two types of thematic map for either 1 or 3 min, followed by a map-related text. Shaded-region, or choropleth maps were associated with greater recall of theme information, but longer exposure time was not. In both experiments, map-related text information was recalled more than map-unrelated text information. Choropleth maps and proportional symbol maps were associated with higher reported use of metacognitive strategies. Instructional and theoretical implications of these findings are discussed.
TL;DR: In this article, the authors describe an approach to the design and use of instructional design (ID) cases, and go on to report on the use of a Web-based ID case in a team case competition involving six universities.
Abstract: Cases have been recommended as an important instructional tool for developing professional knowledge across disciplines. In this paper, we begin by defining case methods, a potentially valuable instructional tool for encouraging authentic, active learning. We describe our approach to the design and use of instructional design (ID) cases, and go on to report on the design and use of a Web-based ID case in a team case competition involving six universities. Students and most officials were enthusiastic about the use of ID cases and about this event. Team collaboration and competition were noted as motivating factors for students. The findings are being used to inform ongoing research and development, which is also described.
TL;DR: The results of a cuedrecall test indicated that children who watched the news on television remembered the stories better than children who read one of the three print versions, regardless of their level of reading proficiency.
Abstract: A partial replication study was conducted comparing children's recall of news stories presented via television and via print. Unlike the procedure in previous experiments, television news stories were compared not only with literal transcripts of the television narratives, but also with two different “real” newspaper versions written by journalists. In addition, the study investigated whether the relative effectiveness of television and print in conveying news information was dependent on children's reading proficiency. A sample of 144 fourth and sixth graders was presented with a sequence of five children's news stories, either in their original television form or in one of the three print versions. The results of a cuedrecall test indicated that children who watched the news on television remembered the stories better than children who read one of the three print versions, regardless of their level of reading proficiency.
TL;DR: The case study examines inefficiencies in the process, frustrations over responsible participation and design, and the increased ownership built during the design phase which paid off in the long run during implementation of the new system.
Abstract: User-design is an important new theoretical process for the creation of training, software, and computer systems in many contexts. However, the implementation of user-design has not been sufficiently explored. This case study details the implementation of user-design methodology in home healthcare through the context of diffusing a new laptop patient record-keeping system with home nurses. In many ways the theoretical advantages and disadvantages of user-design are borne out in this exploration. The case study examines inefficiencies in the process, frustrations over responsible participation and design, and the increased ownership built during the design phase which paid off in the long run during implementation of the new system.
TL;DR: Some tools and tactics to facilitate the knowledge elicitation process in multimedia design by facilitating communication between the designer and subject matter expert (SME).
Abstract: Multimedia exploration programs have different purposes than task-oriented computer-based training (CBT) programs. The multimedia learning process may be more important than its learning product, with the student accessing a rich base of information and symbol systems in a more idiosyncratic manner. The amount and structure of information in an exploratory environment also differs from task- or objectives-based programs. These process and structure differences necessitate special types of task analysis approaches. When meeting with the subject-matter expert, the instructional designer may find it helpful to use scenarios and knowledge mapping tools, and to employ variable consultation strategies. This article outlines some tools and tactics to facilitate the knowledge elicitation process in multimedia design by facilitating communication between the designer and subject matter expert (SME).
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors discuss what the cognitive approach to instructional design (ID) is and how ID practitioners can design training differently using the approach, and describe a model that synthesizes and summarizes the components of a well-designed lesson, and describes what is different about this model from the current approach to ID.
Abstract: This article begins this special issue of ETR&D-Development by discussing what the cognitive approach to instructional design (ID) is and how ID practitioners can design training differently using the approach. Following some introductory comments about purpose, scope and perspective, the article is in two parts. The first part describes why the cognitive approach to ID is important and how the current approach to instructional design and training development is different from the cognitive approach. It then explains how learning occurs according to the cognitive point of view, and the different categories of learning according to one type of cognitive psychology. The second part describes a model that synthesizes and summarizes the components of a well-designed lesson, and describes what is different about this model from the current approach to ID. This model relates what learners have to do to learn to what instructional designers have to do to help them do so. It presents and briefly explains and exemplifies a general framework for instructional design based on cognitive psychology. Finally, it presents a table that can be used as a job aid to design training.
TL;DR: This study examined the implementation of a situated-learning approach used in a nontraditional setting for an instructional technology course with a cohort of corporate employees taking the course at their workplace and using authentic work projects for learning.
Abstract: This study examined the implementation of a situated-learning approach used in a nontraditional setting for an instructional technology course. Students were a cohort of corporate employees taking the course at their workplace and using authentic work projects for learning. Grounded-theory methodology was used to generate explanations about how participants crafted their projects with dual purposes: business performance improvements for the company and acquisition of knowledge and skills for the students. Research questions focused on what it was like to blend business and academic goals and requirements, what kinds of problems occurred, how they were solved, and what outcomes situated learning generated in this context. As projects began, business and academic goals and requirements seemed to align. As projects progressed, conflicts in goals and requirements were often identified and solved pragmatically. A process of adaptation was discovered as the key means to accomplish this blend.
TL;DR: This paper investigated classroom practices of 38 teachers enrolled in university masters' degree programs in educational technology and in other areas of education and found that teachers rated their frequency of use of desirable practices in these five areas on a 30-item Likert type survey.
Abstract: This study investigated classroom practices of 38 teachers enrolled in university masters' degree programs in educational technology and in other areas of education. The classroom practices related to five key concepts associated with educational technology: (a) learner-centered instruction, (b) instructional design, (c) media and technology, (d) assessment, and (e) instructional alignment. Teachers rated their frequency of use of desirable practices in these five areas on a 30-item Likert type survey. In addition, one class of students per teacher rated its own teacher's frequency of use of the practices on 20 items parallel to items on the teacher survey. The mean overall rating across all teachers for the classroom practice items was very close to Often, or 4.0, on the 5-point scale. There were few reported differences between the teachers enrolled in educational technology programs and those enrolled in other education programs. Student ratings indicated less frequent teacher use of the desirable practices on 16 of the 20 common items, with significantly lower student ratings on 8 of these items. However, there was strong teacher-student agreement on several other comparisons.