Showing papers in "European Journal of Psychology of Education in 1992"

A computational approach to socially distributed cognition

Abstract: In most Interactive Learning Environments (ILEs), the human learner interacts with an expert in the domain to be taught. We explored a different approach: the system does not know more than the learner, but learns by interacting with him. A human-computer collaborative learning (HCCL) system includes a micro-world, in which two learners jointly try to solve problems and learn, the human learner and a computerized co-learner. This paper presents the foundations of this artificial co-learner.

Expert-novice interactions: Influence of partner status

Abstract: The aim of this study is to highlight the influence of the socio-relational context in expert-novice problem solving situation. We assume that a hole range of interactive organizations coexist and vary as a function of the asymmetry of the relationships affected by the mastery of the task and differences in partners status. Thirty six first graders aged 6;6 (18 hight achievers and 18 low achievers) were observed during a construction task. Hight achieving experts were assigned to low achieving novices and vice-versa. As predicted, when hight achieving status was associeted with task related expertise (reinforced asymmetry) the interactive dynamic was chiefly caracterised by guidance/tutoring. In contrast, when low achieving status was associated with task related expertise (counter balanced asymmetry), a variety of dynamics were abserved most of which were either cooperative or exhibited reverse guidance by the hight achieving novice. Guidance management by the experts also differed between the reinforced and counter balanced conditions. The findings argue for a pluridimensional approach to socio-cognitive modes of aquisition.

Self-esteem as a predictor of future school achievement

Abstract: Self-esteem as a predictor of future school achievement was studied in 1253 randomly selected adolescents. Self-esteem was assessed with the Coopersmith’s Self-Esteem questionnaire when the students started a Junior or Senior High School. School achievement was measured when they graduated. Self-esteem appeared to be a valid predictor of the future grade average. From the components of self-esteem, general self-esteem and home-parents predicted the future performance while social self correlated slightly negatively with school achievement. A gender based difference was found: in boys the role of self-esteem was similar in all school stages while in girls the self-esteem was more significant in a comprehensive (i.e. compulsory) school and its role decreased in the later, voluntary schooling.

Designing computer systems to support peer learning

Abstract: This article begins with a review of the various roles which computers have played in supporting collaborative learning and argues that, whatever role it plays, technology is not neutral with respect to interactions with and between users. Interfaces to learning environments embody particular representational schemes which have the potential either for competing with representations of the learning domain or for giving access to it. In this respect, the learner-machine interface has ‘Epistemic significance’ and its design is as important as the design of the materials and activities to which it interfaces.

Pairing and gender effects on children’s computer-based learning

Abstract: This paper reports an experimental study in which one hundred and twenty 11 and 12 year olds worked on a computer based problem solving task couched in an adventure game format. Previous results with this type of task (Blaye, Light, Joiner, & Sheldon, 1991) indicated marked facilitative effects of working in pairs, both on children’s paired performance and on their subsequent individual performance. In this study all children were pre-and post-tested individually. For the intervening practice session subjects were assigned at random to work alone or in single- or mixed-gender pairs. Pairs showed a significant advantage over individuals, but this advantage was not carried over to individual post-test. Gender differences were also attenuated relative to previous results. The findings are interpreted in terms of detailed characteristics of the experimental design (in particular the presence of other children even in the ‘individual’ condition) and reduction of gender stereotyping in the software.

Maternal scaffolding of attention between 5 and 8 months

Abstract: Infants’ abilities to focus attention on objects and mothers’ behaviors mobilizing the attention of their child were studied in a sample of 30 dyads, at 5 and 8 months of age. It was hypothesized that at the younger age infants need their mothers’ scaffolding to explore their environment, and that the frequency of mothers’ encouragements at that age is related with their attentional capacities at 8 months; at this later age, mother’s and infant’s behaviors should no more be correlated. Data concerning both the total frequency of the target behaviors and the length of individual occurrences strongly confirm the hypotheses. They imply that in the mother attention getting should be distinguished from attention holding, and are discussed in terms of educational consequences.

Production of Elaborated Argumentative Discourse: The Role of Cooperativeness.

Abstract: The analysis of argumentative discourse produced by 68 students aged 10–17 reveals two facets: argumentative discourse involves both dialogal and argumentative operations. When the dialogue goal calls for the speakers to reach a compromise on a debate topic, they are prompted to negotiate the discourse object: negotiation on content of the exchanges (argumentative cooperativeness which presupposes an articulation of each partner’s arguments with the other partner’) and on the level of the formal argumentative markers of negotiation. The key finding is that dialogal and argumentative operations are functionally linked: the percentage of markers of utterance involvement, axiological forms and modalizations is much higher in argumentative cooperative discourse as compared to discourse where cooperativeness is only dialogal (in which the speakers merely regulate turn taking and maintain thematic continuity). Furthermore, the differentiation in frequency of use of negotiation markers as a function of type of cooperativeness increases with age. Argumentative dialogue thus emerges as a complex form of language behavior which brings interconnected language operations into play.

Collaborative problem-solving with a computer: How can an interactive learning environment be designed?

Abstract: This study was designed to evaluate the effects of a «familiar» learning situation on the strategies used by students in a computer mediated interactive environment. We examine the strategies used by 14–15 year-old students in solving physics problems according to whether the technical situation was presented using a canonical version of an electric circuit (rules currently used in class) or a non-canonical version. Students worked either in pairs or individually with a computer. The results show that the dyads only performed better than individuals in the non-canonical version to the problem. The results are discussed in a perspective which offers a renewed approach of student-computer interaction.

Constructing and understanding of place value in numerical notation

Abstract: The purpose of this study was to investigate how children aged five to nine gradually build up an understanding of the characteristics of place-value inherent in the written number system. The task consisted in presenting collections of chips, asking children to produce the corresponding two-digit numerals, and then questioning them in a structured clinical interview about the possible numerical meaning (in terms of correspondence to a number of chips) of each of the digits in the numeral. Results show that the idea that parts of the notation must correspond to mutually exclusive parts of the collection is but slowly built up, and that subsequently it is fleshed out by the use of knowledge concerning oral numeration_— written numeration correspondences. Intuitions concerning «groups of ten» arise later. A fair proportion of eight-year-olds and all nine-years-olds saw the two-digits as corresponding to, on the one hand, a number of units, and on the other, a number of groups of units.

Collaborative learning at the computer; How social processes ‘interface’ with human-computer interaction

Abstract: In drawing an ‘outline sketch’ of the field of research on interactional learning situations with computers, this paper attempts to provide a general framework for the contributions which follow. After a brief overview of the theoretical grounding of studies in the field, we examine the extent to which learner-computer interaction and learner-learner interaction can interfere with or support one another.

Socio-historical concepts applied to observations of computer use

Abstract: Observations of children using mathematics software are the empirical base for this article. The conceptual base is the socio-historical school of psychology. Our purpose was to develop an ability to characterize and contribute to the children’s learning. To guide observations of the children and interactions with them, we relied on some aspects of the theory that have often been used in studies of learning and development (the use of auxiliary means, the contrast between reduced and elaborated forms, the zone of proximal development) and other concepts that are less well promulgated (activity variations, analysis by units, and models). At the same time, an enriched understanding of the theoretical concepts arose as we grappled with the children’s varied performance on the specific tasks embedded in the software (representation, repetition, and re-analysis). The data are collapsed and annotated field notes of the experience, reshaped to make them available for more general use. The main point is that the two bases are mutually informative.

Comparative Evaluation of Several Educational Methods Used in France for the Orientation of Adolescents: Tools, Results, and Methodological Problems.

Abstract: Progress in orientation educational practices in French-speaking countries has led to the emergence of several methods designed to help in the development of personal and career aims. The several evaluations which have been carried out show that changes seen are first cognitive and specifically involve professional representations: experimental subjects used more descriptors and different descriptors to represent an occupation which interests them. These changes are also cognitive with participants stating that they have been involved in experiences and in activities, have sought information, etc. These initial results once again raise the question of instruments needing to be developed for such evaluation, that of the pertinent variables to be included and finally, more generally, that of a more clear-cut definition of desired aims.

Development of the concepts of living and animal in the child

Abstract: From Piaget’s research down to the most recent work of Carey and Wellman, it has been attempted to describe the development of basic concepts such as living and animal in the child. There have been less frequent attempts to draw from the results of these investigations suitable teachings for correct scientific education at school. The educational system continues to make proposals which clash clearly with the indications of research. The aim of our research is to bridge the gap between these two needs, as well as to study the development of the concept of living and animal in seven to twelve-year-olds and to draw the necessary educational conclusions. In particular, we have investigated how these concepts are modified at the various ages, between boys and girls and between country dwellers, who have a direct experience of animals, and town dwellers, who do not. The results are on the one hand in agreement with those of international research, adding information concerning the variables sex and direct experience, hitherto relatively uninvestigated; on the other, they provide definite indications as to the succession of contents to offer in a science syllabus, to the advisability of taking into account the considerable difference between boys and girls, and to the need to enhance the role of practical experience of exploring and laboratory work in studying natural science.

Effects of Social Regulation and Computer Assistance on the Monitoring of Writing.

Abstract: Novice writers have little control over the text composition process. Being unable to depart from focusing on their representation of the text, they cannot see the potential improvements that might be made to the overall text organization. Based on Vygotsky’s theory, two approaches might be applied to promote the development of the internal dialogue subjects could use to better control their writing: 1) co-action with another writer; 2) interaction with a computer, which prompts and informs.

Social comparison and cognitive performance: A descriptive approach in an academic context

Abstract: Eighty pupils of different academic levels (i.e. strong vs weak) were asked to make estimations about the different subjects taught at school. Gathered post-experimentally, the data allow specification of the relation to intelligence in which each school subject stands for the two different types of subjects. Evaluations of the significations accorded to performances in the different disciplines were also obtained. In accordance with expectations, analysis of these estimations reveals that pupils in a failure situation have an “original” conception of the field of academic comparison. However, the data obtained show that this originality (i.e. this social differentiation) stays within the dominant value system which sets the confines of the field of academic comparison. Taken in conjunction with more experimental results reported elsewhere, these estimations suggest that the cognitive attitude adopted by subjects towards an object of knowledge (here academic) can, in certain conditions, be formed independently of the social significations associated with this object but not independently of the nature of the social insertion which subjects undergo at the time of this interaction.

Analysis of problem solving strategies on electricity problems in 12 to 13 year olds

Abstract: Strategies implemented by 12–13 year olds to solve electricity problems are examined. Three factors account for observed strategies: a) type of problem representation, itself dependent on the knowledge base; b) cognitive personality dimensions; c) form of problem statement.

Structures of argumentative discourse: Effects of type of referential space

Abstract: Written argumentative texts were collected from 7 to 14 year-old-children in two situations: one in which a scientific-like issue was to be debated (formal discourse: FD) and one in which an opinion was to be defended (natural discourse: ND). The structure of the supporting arguments advanced in the individual protocols were analyzed. Various structural indices were defined and calculated for each protocol, and then input into a factorial correspondence analysis. In both the FD and ND conditions, the main factorial axis opposes long protocols to short ones. This finding held true even though the other indices were weighted to compensate for protocol length. The length variable thus appears to be a discourse characteristic as such. Furthermore, long FD protocols were associated with embedded structures and a substantial amount of rewording. Long ND protocols had a low degree of embedding, and contained many accumulated arguments and thematic breaks. The second axis opposes sequential chaining of arguments to argument coordination in FD. In ND, it opposes the absence of structure and many rewordings to a variety of more or less highly organized structures, but without sequential chaining. These analyses revealed some interesting differences between formal and natural discourse: the key role played by sequential chaining in FD versus the insignificance of this type of structure in ND, and the important but different role of rewording in FD and ND. Protocol length was found to be strongly linked to subject age: older subjects have more arguments at their disposal. But in addition to acquiring the ability to write longer texts, older children are able to use different structures for argumentation, depending on the type of referential space involved.

Organization of metacognitive knowledge: A condition for strategy use in memorization

Abstract: In this research, we study acquisition and maintenance of a categorization strategy for item recall. 56 children, aged 6 to 8 years, who do not spontaneously use such a strategy during a pretest are given a training session with feed-back. The experimental procedure involves asking subjects before the post-test to give a description of the training session: this description may be considered as reflecting the representation of the relation between strategy use and recall performance (i.e. the metacognitive knowledge), as it is available at the time of the post-test phase. Our results clarify the conditions under which metacognitive knowledge about the relations between goals, strategies and acquired performance can be re-used in the solution of different but analogous tasks. Thus, only those subjects who can use information provided during training to construct metacognitive knowledge that is both generalizable, and refers to functional relations between means and ends, are able to re-use the acquired strategy. We believe that the construction of such forms of metacognitive knowledge implies two distinct processes of cognitive reorganization. However the question of what distinguishes subjects who can successfully proceed with this cognitive reorganization from others remains open.

Effects of cooperation on spelling achievement at three age levels (Grades 2, 4, and 6).

Abstract: In a field experiment among second, fourth and sixth grade pupils from 27 primary schools, two instruction methods were compared. At 13 schools (control condition) pupils did spelling exercises as usual, i.e. individually. At 14 schools pupils worked in pairs; each pupil was asked to check a partners’ work and discuss mistakes. At grade 2 cooperation led to less off-task behaviour when pupils did spelling assignments of a more complex type. Nevertheless we found a negative effect on achievement. At grade 4 cooperation led to less off-task behaviour for complex assignments and an increase in pupil’s effort as rated by their teachers as well. These findings were accompanied by a weak effect on achievement. Cooperation did not affect effort nor achievement of pupils from grade 6. At none of three grade levels we found indications of better reasoning strategies as a consequence of pair learning. The differential effect of cooperation at the three age levels may be explained in terms of complexity of learning subject and of lesson type.

How french and German children of preschool age conceptualize the writing system

Abstract: As a continuation of research carried out by E. Ferreiro, we adopted a socio-constructivist approach to the question of how young children of 5–6 years of age conceptualize the writing system taking into account both their social background and their preschool system of education. Our sample was made up of 308 children of preschool level; 225 French children and 83 German children were asked to write a series of words without the help of a model. p The results we obtained confirmed our hypotheses: the pedagogical activities used in the French infant schools did not help the children to conceptualize the writing system better than the game activities (which had nothing to do with writing) used in the German kindergartens. Furthermore, we found that the socio-cultural background played an important role in both countries. The influence of the prevailing ideas about teaching and learning how to write, based on maturationism and empirism-associationism, are discussed with reference to the constructivist model.

Group work with the computer: the developing organisation of joint action

Abstract: This article is concerned with joint problem-solving at the computer In particular it is concerned with the organisation of joint activity in this context (ie the distribution and exchange of actions), and with the way in which children master the relationship between their action-organisation and the task objective A study is reported in which pairs of 7 and 13 years olds worked on a variety of computer-based tasks involving construction of a complex motion trajectory on a display screen Some of the pairs at both ages remained oriented toward the external characteristics of the pattern they were tracing By contrast, some of the older pairs were very clearly oriented towards the means of pattern construction, rather than to the pattern itself Such orientation, displayed in varying degrees by different pairs of subjects across the two samples, was reflected in the ability not only to maintain but also to successfully alter and reconstruct the coordination of individual into joint actions in the course of solving complex variants of the task

An evaluation of simple games as a method of teaching counting to children with a moderate mental handicap

Abstract: Learning to count can be a difficult and confusing task, particularly for the child with a moderate mental handicap. Many of these children may lack basic skills such as the ability to establish correspondence between the number words and objects or counting actions. A description of an experimental teaching approach aimed at enhancing counting accuracy is provided. 22 children were invited to play a variety of specially devised games over a three week period. Children’s counting abilities improved markedly on assessment after the games intervention. These gains were maintained on follow-up.

Social construction and individual development: A reply to doise and Mugny’s rejoinder

Abstract: In a paper published recently in the European Journal of Psychology (Howe, Rodgers, & Tolmie, 1990), my colleagues and I reported two studies concerned with the effects of peer interaction on eightto twelve-year olds' understanding of floating and sinking. In both studies, understanding was measured on individual pre-tests administered prior to the interactions and individual post-tests administered a few weeks afterwards, with the effects on understanding being assessed by preto post-test change. Taken as a whole, the results led to two main conclusions. Firstly, interactions between peers whose initial ideas were different were more beneficial than interactions between peers whose initial ideas were similar. So long as initial ideas were different, it did not matter whether they were more, less or equally advanced. Secondly, interactions where peers jointly constructed superior ideas were no more beneficial than interactions where they did not do this. In one of the studies, the ideas that the children constructed while interacting tended to be more adequate if they were jointly rather than independently produced. However, there was no relation between the ideas that were constructed during the interactions and preto post-test change. In the other study, a positive correlation was obtained between the ideas that were constructed during the interactions and subsequent change. However, good ideas that were constructed jointly between the interacting peers were no more beneficial than good ideas that were constructed independently or in direct opposition. Since the floating and sinking research, we have carried out a parallel study (Howe, Tolmie, & Rodgers, in press) concerned with peer interaction and eightto twelve-year olds' understanding of motion down an incline, in particular their appreciation that starting position, surface friction and surface angle are relevant and the object weight is irrelevant. Both our conclusions are strongly endorsed by the results of this study. For instance, when assessed on a post-test administered some four weeks after the interactions, the children who had worked with differing peers were more likely to have advanced from their pre-test position than the children who had worked with similar. In addition, regardless of similarity or difference, post-test progress was in no way contingent on the joint construction of superior ideas. No matter wheter they were jointly or separately produced, the ideas constructed during the interactions were typically worse than the ones proposed at the pre-tests, leading to a statiscally significant regression. Moreover, the correlations between the ideas produced during the interactions and preto post-test change were never statiscally significant. Indeed, the motion down an incline study not only confirmed the irrelevance of jointly constructed advancement. It showed also that most of the growth took place once the interactions were over. In addition to the post-tests administered at the four week interval, post-tests were also given within one day of the

Why is the change in the task difficult for blind children

Abstract: Difficulties in changing direction or orientation, recognized in the blind as mental rigidity, have long been observed, yet there is little evidence of their systematic investigation. A detailed description of the two types of Piaget’s tasks (two-dimensional displacement and classification with changing criteria), the statistical analysis of the results of the blind and sighted children, and protocol analysis, have been used in this paper as the basis to investigate the phenomenon in a new perspective. Togheter with some concepts from Piagetian theory, we introduced some concepts from the information processing approach, hoping that they can help to explain how the blind differ from the sighted in problem-solving situations. This level of understanding could be useful in the development of educational strategies for the blind, and at the same time confirm some theoretical positions and new research findings.

Cognitive reality of multidimensional information processing in knowledge assessment by experts

Abstract: Two experiments were designed in order to examine the knowledge assessment task accomplished by French teachers assessing essays written by French native secondary school students. The focus of the study bears on the potentially multidimensional nature of the processing of evaluation cues. In the experimental conditions conventionally designed to test multidimensional evaluation models or techniques, information about each object to be evaluated (and hence, the dimensions along which objects are compared with each other) are explicitly provided to the subject from some external source. The experiments presented here were aimed at studying information processing by experts performing an evaluation task in which the experts themselves are required to: (i) define the relevant dimensions to be used in the evaluation and (ii) elaborate the necessary information about each of those dimensions for each object (in this case, native language essays). The question is to find out whether or not the information processing carried out by such subjects is multidimensional. If evaluators do in fact perform multidimensional processing of information, this implies not only that evaluation cues belong to differentiated classes (Experiment 1), but also that cues belonging to the same class are processed with respect to each other before being processed with respect to cues of another class (Experiment 2). The results obtained here support that conclusion. Both experiments used the self-paced display paradigm. Subjects were presented with segments of text on a computer screen, and the display time for each segment was recorded. Random coloration of errors belonging to three evaluator-defined classes was found to increase display time on the corresponding segments.