Showing papers in "Hystrix-italian Journal of Mammalogy in 2011"

Surveying wolves without snow: a critical review of the methods used in Spain

Abstract: Wolves (Canis lupus) are dicult to survey, and in most countries, snow is used for identifying the species, counting individuals, recording movements and determining social position. However, in the Iberian peninsula and other southern regions of its gobal range, snow is very scarce in winter, so wolves must be surveyed without snow. In Spain and Portugal, wolves are surveyed through estimating number of wolf packs in summer by means of locating litters of pups when they are at rendezvous sites. Packs are confirmed when pups are observed or respond to simulated howling. We make a critical review of this method, exploring the sources of error when estimating number of packs, the constraints of the simulated howling method, the sources of uncertainty caused by variations in eort, in observer experience and in other variables. We stress the diculty of assessing average pack size and percentage of wolves not included in packs (pairs and solitary wolves), which can exceed 30% of the population. These restrictions make this method unaccurate and unable to detect moderate or even large population size variations. At the same time, indices based on abundance of wolf tracks and scats is hampered by the lack of snow and the problem to distinguish them from those of dogs. We conclude that accepting the limitations of these wolf surveys and highlighting the uncertainty of the figures they provide is more realistic and will encourage a more prudent approach to wolf management.

An integrated program to prevent, mitigate and compensate wolf ( Canis lupus ) damage in Piedmont region (northern Italy)

Abstract: Wolves’ natural recolonization in the Western Alps in the early 1990s resulted in increased in depredation events. The Piedmont Regional Administration has been running a program aimed at monitoring the wolf expansion process and mitigating the human-wolf conflict since 1999. Three key actions, i)compensationofcanids(wolfanddog)damage; ii)asubsidysystem to promote good livestock husbandry practices; iii) promotion of preventive measures, were used to prevent and compensate damage caused by wolves. Direct damage was verified by veterinarians and refunded according to an annually updated price list. In addition indirect losses were compensated on a lump-sum basis proportional to the herd size for each attack. Since 2007 a subsidy system has rewarded shepherds who, pasturing within the home range of wolf packs and in neighbouring areas, have adopted good management practices and preventive measures. Ad hoc damage prevention plans have mainly addressed chronic situations. Changes in animal husbandry (removal of dead livestock from pastures, confiningsickanimals, synchronizingbirthsandusingshedlambing), promotion of use of electric fences and introduction of livestock guarding dogs (LGDs) have been the most common interventions. A new model of electrified net has been developed and LGDs have been selected and diffused; LGDs behavioural research is in progress. The Regional wolf Program integrates dierent measures to manage the human-wolf conflict: not only to compensate depredation damages, but also to stimulate the adoption of husbandry practices compatible with the presence of wolves. Actually, in order to promote wolf tolerance by livestock owners, theProgramaimedtodistributewolfconservationcostsmoreequitably and involve farmers in decisional processes.

Livestock protection methods applicable for Germany – a Country newly recolonized by wolves

Abstract: Against the background of the return of wolves into Germany the Federal Agency for Nature Conservation (BfN) commissioned a synopsis and evaluation of large carnivore (LC) damage prevention methods that may work in Germany. The goal was to come up with recommendations for livestock protectionmeasures,prevention-andcompensationpaymentschemesbased on experiences in Germany and other European countries. We summarized the German experience, reviewed the existing literature with a special focus on Europe, and send questionnaires to experts in European countries that face similar challenges like Germany. The results confirmed that there is no single livestock protection method providing 100% safety. However, a couple of methods can reduce damages considerably and havealreadyprovedtobesuccessfulalsounderGermanconditions. Electric fences, when used correctly, are an eective measure for reducing predation on sheep or goats. In most cases electric sheep nets are sucient as wolves rarely jump over fences. Most eective appears to be a combination of electric fences and livestock guarding dogs (LGD). However, it will be imperative to provide shepherds not only with dogs but also with expert advice on the raising and training of these dogs. When compensation is not coupled with prevention the incentive to use prevention measures accurately may be weak and thus we highly recommend interlinking compensation payment with damage prevention. However, given the current low level of wolf predation on large stock, we presently recommend for Germany to request and consequently financially support only prevention measures for small livestock on a preemptive basis in the area of permanent wolf presence.

Comparing three Live trapping methods for small mammal sampling in cultivated areas of NE Spain

Abstract: We aimed to investigate trap efficiency and specificity of three widely used live trapping methods (Sherman, mesh, and pitfall traps) in an agricultural landscape of NE Spain. We trapped 243 small mammals of 8 different species. Sherman traps yielded more species (6) than mesh (5) and pitfall (3) traps. Log-linear analysis for contingency tables showed that the three trapping methods used were species-specific and the analysis of the standardized residuals pointed out that Apodemus sylvaticus and Mus spretus were under- sampled by pitfall traps, whereas Suncus etruscus and Microtus duodecimcostatus were significantly over-sampled by pitfall traps. Finally, Suncus etruscus was significantly un- der-sampled by Sherman and mesh traps. The composition of the small mammal commu- nity studied was rather similar when using Sherman and mesh traps, but differed strongly from the community sampled by pitfall traps. As previously pointed out by many authors, a combination of trapping techniques is necessary to assess the composition of small mam- mal communities.

The winter diet of the lesser horseshoe bat ( Rhinolophus hipposideros ) in Britain and Ireland.

Abstract: The lesser horseshoe bat Rhinolophus hipposideros feeds regularly throughout the winter across its British and Irish range During winter 1995/96 and 1998/99, in Cornwall R hipposideros fed mainly on dipteran flies in the families Tipulidae/Trichoceridae, Sphaeroceridae and Mycetophilidae Differences in dietary composition were found across the British and Irish range of R hipposideros in winter, and these probably relate to local habitat differences Nevertheless, across sites Tipulidae/Trichoceridae were always the most frequently eaten prey in winter, with Mycetophilidae and Anisopodidae also eaten frequently The ecology of the important prey families indicated the value of damp woodland with decaying wood and grazing animals, particularly cattle, for the winter foraging of R hipposideros

European hares select resting places for providing cover

Abstract: European hares (Lepus europaeus) are thought to select resting places pro- viding cover, to protect themselves against predators and unfavourable weather conditions. We tested this hypothesis by flushing wild hares from their resting places and by assessing the cover at hare forms. The vegetation at resting places was generally found to be higher than 30 cm, i.e. higher than the approximate height of a hare. As compared to randomly chosen control points, hares showed a preference for cover at their resting places through- out the year. From April to August, all investigated habitat categories, but most often field habitats were used for resting places, and during this season, vegetation providing cover above 30 cm was found in all habitat categories. From September to March, however, rest- ing places were mostly found in forests or in areas between fields, whereas open fields with little or no vegetation were generally avoided as resting sites. Furthermore, we found that flight distances depended on cover value and were lower in dense vegetation, suggesting that hares valued resting places providing cover as a better protection against predators. We suggest that the loss of cover in agricultural landscapes has reduced the availability of rest- ing places for the European hare and has likely contributed to the population decline in in- tensely used landscapes.

Wolf monitoring in France : a dual frame process to survey time- and space-related changes in the population

Abstract: The wolf recovery in France dates back to 1992, following the natural range expansion of the remaining Italian population since the late 1960’s Facing a high level of interactions between wolves and sheep breeding, decision makers had to quickly balance the need for managing livestock depredations with the conservation of wolves as a protected species The French authorities therefore required a reliable assessment of changes in the species range and population numbers, as well as a reliable monitoring of depredations on livestock, all being key variables to be further included within the governmental decision making process Because of their elusive behaviour, high mobility, and territoriality, applying a standard random sampling design to the monitoring of awolf population would lead to almost no chance of collecting any signs of presence In order to increase detectability, we use a dual frame survey based on two spatial scales (“population range” and “reproductive unit”) investigated sequentially thanks to a network of specifically-trained wolf experts distributed over 80000 km2 to collect the data First, an extensive sign survey at a large scale provides so-called cross-sectional data (pool of signs from unknown individuals for a given year), thereby allowing the detection of new wolf occurrences, new pack formations, and the documentation of geographical trends Secondly, an intensive sign survey within each detected wolf territory, based on standard snow tracking and wolf howling playback sessions, provides some yearly updatable proxies of the demographic pattern The combination with a non invasive molecular tracking provides longitudinal data to develop mark-recapture models and estimate vital rates, population size and growth rate, while accounting for detection probabilities The latter are used in turn to control for proxies’ reliability and to implement demographic models with local population parameters Finally, wolf activity patterns in connection with predator-prey dynamics is investigated through a pilot study carried out with both wolves and four ungulate preys radio-collared A particular attention is paid to checking the reliability of presence sign data, as well as improving the cost-efficiency ratio of the monitoring Finally, these results are also used by the government as one of the components in the decision making process related to the management of coexistence with wolves

Microhabitat partitioning of Apodemus flavicollis and Myodes glareolus in the sub-montane Alps: a preliminary assessment

Abstract: Interspecific competition can cause partitioning in habitat use by sympatric species. This study gives a preliminary contribution to the understanding of microhabitat partitioning of Apodemus flavicollis and Myodes glareolus in sub-montane habitats. A total of 1000 trap nights in the subalpine forest in the Austrian Otscher mountain showed that high- and low-tree cover, high-shrub cover, plot location in or out of the forest, and distance from the forest edge were the variables which discriminated the sites of capture of the two species. A. flavicollis seemed to be more associated with the forest edge than M. glareolus , which, in contrast, preferred areas well within the forest with high tree and shrub cover. Our results suggest that the two species show some level of partitioning according to microhabitat structure.

Cranial and dental analysis of Mouse-like Hamsters of the genus Calomyscus (Rodentia: Calomyscidae) from plateau of Iran

Abstract: To assess morphometric interspecific differences, we studied by multivariate and univariate analyses 32 cranial, mandibular and dental variables and four standard external measurements in 84 specimens of the genus Calomyscus ( C. elburzensis , C. bailwardi , C. hotsoni and C. grandis ) from Iran. Almost all mean cranial measurements in C. grandis were larger than in the other three species, while the opposite occurred for C. hotsoni . C. bailwardi showed the smallest dental measurement. Principal Components Analysis showed seven components with Eigen-Value > 1, explaining 77.08% of total variance. PC1 explained 25.96% of the total variance and clearly separated C. grandis from the other three species. The first two Canonical Discriminant Functions explained 84.4% of the total variance. CDF1 separated C. grandis from the other three species and C. bailwardi from C. hotsoni , while CDF2 separated C. elburzensis from C. hotsoni and, with a little overlap, C. bailwardi . In total, 93.7% of cases was correctly classified. Cluster analysis showed that C. bailwardi and C. elburzensis formed a cluster, to which C. hotsoni was closer than C. grandis . We concluded that a combination of several cranial and dental measures may help to discriminate these four Iranian species of the genus Calomyscus .

Efficacy of passive hair-traps for the genetic sampling of a low-density badger population

Abstract: A hair-trapping survey was carried out in the western River Po plain (NW Italy). We aimed to test whether barbed wire hair snares in combination with DNA profiling might represent an effective tool to study a low-density badger population. Traps were placed above the entrances of twelve badger setts between 15 February and 30 April 2010. Trapping effort was expressed as the number of trap-nights required to pluck a hair sample and the trend in the number of genotyped individual over time was analysed by regression analysis. Forty-three hair samples were collected, with an overall trapping effort of 54.8 trap-nights per one hair sample. Twenty-eight samples yielded reliable genotypes, allowing the identification of nine individual badgers. The length of storage period (1-3 months) before DNA extraction did not seem to affect genotyping success. According to the regression model, trapping effort allowed to sample 75% of the overall population. Our results suggest that the efficacy of passive devices is affected by population density.

Artificial roosts for bats: education and research. the "be a bat's friend" project of the natural history museum of the university of florence

Abstract: The project "BAT BOX: Be a Bat's Friend" was launched in 2006 with the aim of spreading correct information about the ecological role of bats, rehabilitating their image and fostering the involvement of the public in conservation actions. A wooden, sin- gle-chamber bat box was designed and produced at low cost. Through collaboration with Coop, to date ca. 25000 bat boxes have been sold over much of the country at cost price. Private citizens, institutions and associations installed and monitored the boxes using a standard form for the collection of data. The sale of a range of project-related merchandis- ing articles has raised funds used for bat research and conservation projects. Conferences, public meetings, school lessons, papers and an informative brochure helped to spread the aims of the project. In 2010, Disney Italia produced a new brochure and the educational comic strip "Donald Duck and Kiro the Bat". The monitoring of bat boxes showed a pro- gressive increase in the success of colonisation over time, up to 40.0%. In general, both time from installation and height above ground proved to significantly influence colonisa- tion success.

Long-term monitoring of pyrenean chamois in a protected area reveals a fluctuating population

Abstract: Monitoraggio a lungo termine del camoscio dei Pirenei in una zona protetta: fluttuazione della popolazione. Tra il 1993 ed il 2009, la popolazione di camoscio pirenaico Rupicapra p. pyrenaica del Parco Nazionale d’Aiguestortes e Estany de Sant Maurici (14119 ha, Catalogna, Spagna) e stata monitorata periodicamente. Nel periodo post-riproduttivo (luglio), i censimenti sono stati condotti lungo 20 percorsi supraforestali fissi, con l’obiettivo di stimare le variazioni nelle dimensioni, rapporto sessi, struttura e produttivita della popolazione nell’area protetta. La densita media e risultata pari a 6,7 camosci km -2 , il rapporto sessi circa 1:3 in favore delle femmine, mentre la produttivita e stata pari a 0,6 juvenes per femmina adulta. La proporzione di animali indeterminati durante i conteggi e diminuita significativamente nel tempo, probabilmente in seguito al progressivo training degli operatori. Nel periodo di studio, le dimensioni della popolazione sono fluttuate significativamente. Sebbene le cause di tali variazioni siano ancora da approfondire, le successive epidemie di cheratocongiuntivite infettiva e Pestivirus che hanno colpito la popolazione hanno probabilmente svolto un ruolo determinante. Si raccomanda di sviluppare un piano di gestione dell’intero massiccio montuoso, che includa regolari monitoraggi sanitari e conteggi autunnali.

New record on Pigmy Field Mouse (muridae, rodentia) from northeast Iran

Abstract: In this study the field mice of eastern Elborz in Golestan province were examined using molecular, morphologic and morphometric characters. RFLP analysis indicates the presence of three different haplotypes called as A, B and C. Taxonomic determination of the specimens of the haplotyes shows that haplotypes A, B and C represents three different species, A. cf. uralensis , A. cf. hyrcanicus and A. witherbeyi , respectively. Two latter species were previously reported from the studied area. However, the discovery of A. cf. uralensis in this region extends the eastern border of the distribution of this species up to eastern Elbruz and confirms the sympatric occurrence of A. uralensis and A. hyrcanicus in the Golestan province.

A critical assessment of the presence of Barbastella barbastellus and Nyctalus noctula in Ireland with a description of N. leisleri echolocation calls from Ireland.

Abstract: Nyctalus noctula and Barbastella barbastellus were first reported from Ireland in 1997, however these reports were based solely on echolocation call data. Since then, neither species have been reported again or confirmed as a resident species in Ireland. In this study the status of these two species in Ireland was assessed. For B. barbastellus , the woodlands in the area where it was previously reported from, in the Lough Derg region, were surveyed by walked transects using Pettersson D1000X bat detectors and through passive monitoring using the SD1 Anabat detector and the Pettersson D1000X over three nights. Out of 1011 recordings, no calls of B. barbastellus were encountered. For N. noctula , 98 Nyctalus sp. calls recorded from five squares (30 km 2 ) on the east coast of Ireland, during a car based monitoring scheme were analysed (peak frequency and call duration). These were compared to 220 reference calls of N. leisleri from Dartry and Phoenix Park, County Dublin, Ireland and published data on N. leisleri and N. noctula calls from Britain. All Irish calls recorded from Dartry Park, Phoenix Park and the car transect squares fell within the known parameters range of N. leisleri but also overlapped with the higher frequency and shortest duration calls of N. noctula . However, no Irish calls overlapped with the lower frequency range and longest call duration of N. noctula , indicating that this latter species was probably not recorded in the Irish dataset. The results of this study are discussed in relation to the difficulty of reporting a bat species presence based on echolocation calls alone and the suitability of Ireland for both species.

A first assessment of feeding habits in the fruit bat Rousettus aegyptiacus on Cyprus island

Abstract: Rousettus aegyptiacus is the only fruit bat occurring in Europe. A dramatic, poorly understood decline was recently reported for the important population occurring on the island of Cyprus (Eastern Mediterranean). Assessing diet in this population is important to tailor appropriate conservation measures and help mitigate conflicts with farming. In this study, we present a first assessment of diet for the Cyprus population, mainly based on the occurrence of fruit remains in droppings. We analyzed 222 droppings (corresponding to 281 food items) collected at two cave roosts over three seasons. We identified 11 plant species from 8 families. Melia azedarach , Morus spp. and Ceratonia siliqua had a frequency of occurrence in diet > 0.1; Eryobotria japonica , Ficus and Arbutus andrachne were of intermediate importance, and the remaining food types were less common. Considerable differences in the occurrence frequencies of food types were detected between sites. Five out of 11 plant species found in the diet are commercially grown on Cyprus for fruit crop, but most were of secondary importance for bats. The occurrence of economically important plants in the diet was quite limited. M. azedarach , important for one of the colonies, is an alien species on Cyprus cultivated as an ornamental plant. Our data may help manage food resources to improve the population’s conservation status, but countering other threats including pesticide use and direct persecution would also be of chief importance.

The role of common toads in the winter diet of recolonising Eurasian otters ( Lutra lutra )

Abstract: Importanza del rospo comune nella dieta invernale di una popolazione di lontra ( Lutra lutra ) in espansione. Tramite analisi dei resti fecali, abbiamo evidenziato il ruolo fondamentale degli anfibi nella dieta invernale della lontra Lutra lutra in stagni artificiali della Spagna nord-occidentale. I numerosi “laghi di cava” presenti nell’area umida di Ribeiras do Louro e Gandaras de Budino sono stati monitorati nel 2007-2009. Il rospo comune ( Bufo bufo ) era la principale preda della lontra, costituendo l’88% della biomassa consumata, mentre il gambero americano Procambarus clarkii e i pesci erano prede secondarie. I nostri risultati contrastano con la ben nota preferenza della lontra per le rane rispetto al rospo. Il mantenimento della popolazione di lontra nel bacino del fiume Louro dipende strettamente dalla corretta gestione degli stagni artificiali.

A survey for smooth coated otter Lutrogale perspicillata on the river Narayani, Chitwan National Park, Nepal

Abstract: Indagine sulla distribuzione della lontra liscia Lutrogale perspicillata lungo il fiume Narayani, Parco Nazionale di Chitwan, Nepal. In gennaio e giugno 2009, la distribuzione della lontra lungo il tratto del fiume Narayani incluso nel Parco Nazionale di Chitwan, e stata rilevata tramite il metodo standard, suddividendo il tratto investigato in sei sezioni, da monte verso valle. La presenza della specie e stata accertata nelle sezioni 2 e 3, lungo ramificazioni caratterizzate da bassa velocita della corrente e scarsa profondita, separate dal corso principale da dune sabbiose coperte da Saccharum sp. L’intensa attivita di pesca e l’estrazione di sabbia in alveo potrebbero essere le cause dell’assenza della specie nei tratti a valle. La preferenza per i rami secondari probabilmente dipende dalla maggiore disponibilita di pesce e siti di rifugio durante la stagione dei monsoni.

The apennine hare lepus corsicanus in latium, central italy: a habitat suitability model and comparison with its current range

Abstract: La lepre appenninica Lepus corsicanus nel Lazio, Italia centrale: un modello di idoneita ambientale a confronto con la distribuzione attuale. La lepre appenninica ( Lepus corsicanus ) e un endemismo italiano distribuito in Italia centro-meridionale, in Sicilia e in Corsica. Nel Lazio esistono piccole popolazioni, spesso isolate tra loro. Scopo di questo lavoro e la realizzazione di un modello di idoneita ambientale per questa specie. L’areale sinora conosciuto nel Lazio dimostra che il taxon e adattabile a diverse tipologie ambientali e a varie altitudini s.l.m. Il modello e stato elaborato su piattaforma GIS, attribuendo al tipo di uso del suolo (secondo la classificazione del progetto CLC) e alla quota (categorie DTM) un punteggio conforme alle preferenze ecologiche della specie. Il modello ottenuto e stato comparato con uno proposto precedentemente e confrontato con la distribuzione attuale della specie ottenuta a partire dai dati di presenza raccolti dal 1990 al 2009. Anche considerando la maggior mole di dati utilizzata nel presente studio, la differenza piu evidente tra i due modelli e l’estensione maggiore delle aree ad alta idoneita ambientale da noi ottenuta. L’85.7% delle localizzazioni ricade nella classe di idoneita piu elevata, suggerendo che il modello riflette le preferenze ecologiche della specie e puo rappresentare un utile strumento gestionale.

A craniometric investigation of the field vole microtus agrestis in denmark - population substructure

Abstract: A craniometric investigation using univariate and principal component analysis (PCA) was performed on 91 skull traits of 472 field voles, collected on nine islands and from the Jutland peninsula in Denmark in order to reveal possible geographical differences in skull shape and size. Because of missing values in the skulls due to various damages, only 186 individuals were measured for the dorsal side of the skull, 174 individuals for the ventral side and 154 individuals for the mandible. Of these traits, from the dorsal side of the skull 28 traits were measured, from the ventral side 33 traits and from the mandible 30 traits. With few exceptions, differences in skull shape were found between samples collected from the different islands, and also between samples from islands and samples from the Jutland peninsula. It is therefore suggested that field voles have a genetic differentiation between island and island and between island and mainland at the loci determining the shape of the skull. The field voles from some islands and the eastern part of the Jutland peninsula had the largest skulls compared with field voles from other islands and other parts of the Jutland peninsula. The origin of size differences is discussed and attributed to be due to several environmental factors as geographic variation in habitat quality but also as a consequence of the island syndrome.

Effectiveness of two trapping protocols for studying the demography of common voles

Abstract: Efficacia di due metodi di trappolaggio per lo studio della demografia dell’arvicola campestre. Per valutare l'efficacia di due tipi di trappole, trappole “killer” e trappole “a vivo” tipo Rodl, sono stati confrontati i risultati della rimozione completa di una popolazione di arvicola campestre Microtus arvalis in merito a eta, sesso, status riproduttivo e peso degli individui trappolati tramite ciascun metodo. Le trappole Rodl hanno catturato, in media, animali di eta maggiore e piu femmine riproduttive, mentre non sono state rilevate differenze significative in termini sia di rapporto sessi sia di peso medio. I risultati ottenuti suggeriscono di utilizzare almeno due metodi di cattura e che il confronto dei parametri demografici di popolazioni differenti puo essere considerato valido solo quando siano stati utilizzati gli stessi metodi di trappolaggio.

Assessing population size of Martino's vole ( Dinaromys bogdanovi ) in central Bosnia

Abstract: We carried out a Capture-Mark-Recapture study on Martino's vole Dinaromys bogdanovi on Mt. Bjelasnica, central Bosnia. During two trapping sessions (June and September 2008) we recorded 21 individuals which were captured 33 times. Voles were trapped significantly more frequently during the night (85% of all captures). In June all the animals were adult females while three age classes (juvenile, subadult and adult) were distinguished in September. No reproductive activity was recorded in mid-June and not a single adult female was evidently pregnant in September. Also, subadults (N = 6) did not show reproductive activity. Martino’s voles proved sedentary and only two individuals moved between trap stations. Ten adults were captured in two sessions on an area of 5.67 ha, resulting in a population density of about 2.5 voles per hectare.

Two unusual records of the lesser horseshoe bat ( Rhinolophus hipposideros ) in the Moravian Karst (Czech Republic).

Abstract: During a census of bats hibernating in the Sloupsko-sosůvske Caves in February 2010, a total of 739 R. hipposideros were recorded. Among them, a complete albino was examined and found to be a female born in the previous summer. The cases of partial and complete albinism in R. hipposideros reported so far are reviewed; all records were made in Central Europe in the Czech and Slovak territories. Also a copulating pair of R. hipposideros was documented and photographed. Unlike hibernating individuals, the bats were alert, in dorso-ventral contact with the male biting his mate’s dorsal fur.

A case of autumn mating in the apennine brown bear (ursus arctos marsicanus)

Abstract: Although the breeding season of brown bears generally occurs during early spring or summer, a few incidents of autumn mating have been recently documented in British Columbia and Japan. Considering the rarity, yet the relevance, of these events, we report a case of autumn courtship and mating in the Apennine brown bear observed as late as 3 November 2010 in the Abruzzo Lazio and Molise National Park, central Italy. Mating was preceded and followed by muzzle sniffing and play fighting, and involved an adult fe- male associated with a cub. During the 20-min observation, the female did not display cub defence behaviour, nor the adult male acted aggressively toward the cub. We briefly discuss this observation on theoretical grounds, including the potential meaning of late breeding for this small bear population.