Showing papers in "Journal of Advertising in 1994"

The Personal Involvement Inventory: Reduction, Revision, and Application to Advertising

Abstract: The conceptualization of the Personal Involvement Inventory was a context-free measure applicable to involvement with products, with advertisements, and with purchase situations. The empirical work to develop this measure was mainly validated with respect to product categories. This paper extends the construct validation of the PII to involvement with advertisements and also demonstrates that the PII may be reliably reduced from twenty items to ten items. There is some indication the revised PII may then be broken into two subscales representing a cognitive and affective grouping.

Beyond Advertising and Publicity: Hybrid Messages and Public Policy Issues

Abstract: This research explores a growing genre of marketing communication, labeled hybrid messages, which creatively combine key advantages (and avoid key disadvantages) inherent in advertising and publicity messages. Several types of hybrid messages are discussed, including those with long established histories (product placements, program-length commercials, program tie-ins), and those with a relatively recent origin (masked-art, masked-news, and masked-spokesperson messages). To obtain integrative insights on hybrid messages, this study: (a) reviews their historical/current regulatory status, (b) discusses their pros and cons, theoretical rationales and practical implications, and (c) delineates an extensive agenda for future research. Several important public policy questions raised by hybrid messages are addressed.

Comparative and Noncomparative Advertising: Attitudinal Effects under Cognitive and Affective Involvement Conditions

Abstract: This study compares effectiveness of comparative and noncomparative advertising for products characterized by different levels of cognitive and affective involvement. Comparative advertisements induce more positive brand attitudes for products which elicit cognitive and affective motivations simultaneously. This happens because brand comparisons facilitate an attribute-based processing style which might otherwise succumb to the competing affective involvement. Noncomparative attribute-based ads yield more favorable attitudes toward the ad when affective involvement is high than when it is low. Comparative ads are also shown to positively influence brand switchers and have a negative impact on consumers loyal to competing brands.

Awareness of Sponsorship and Corporate Image: An Empirical Investigation

Abstract: Corporate sponsorship is growing in importance as an element of the communications mix The number of companies participating in sponsorship, as well as corporate expenditures for sponsoring events, is on the rise as organizations seek new ways to reach audiences and enhance their image The importance of corporate sponsorship is now generally acknowledged, but little research has been done to understand its value and effectiveness An exploratory study was conducted to examine the relationship between sponsorship and corporate image The results suggest that corporate sponsorship can improve corporate image, but its effects differ among companies Moreover, sponsorship is only one of the information sources consumers use to form their impressions of an organization Under certain circumstances, corporate sponsorship can damage, rather than enhance, the image of a company

Facets of Country of Origin Image: An Empirical Assessment

Abstract: Country of origin (CO) is a potentially powerful image variable that can be used to gain competitive advantage in international marketing. However, deficiencies in the definition and measurement of its facets have contributed to ineffective and infrequent use of CO image as a competitive tool. The research reported in this article addresses these weaknesses through the use of confirmatory factor and incremental fit analyses. The findings reveal that CO image is a multifaceted construct and that its facets are clearly interpretable. The article concludes with a discussion of advertising implications and directions for future research.

The Death of Advertising

Abstract: Mass media advertising as we know it today is on its deathbed, and its prognosis is poor. Advertising agencies are restructuring to accommodate a harsher advertising climate, agency income is flat, agency employees are being laid off, direct marketing is stealing business from traditional advertising, and the growth of sales promotion and integrated marketing communications both come at the expense of traditional advertising. The reason for advertising's impending demise is the advent of new technologies that have resulted in the fragmentation of media and markets, and the empowerment of consumers. In the place of traditional mass media advertising, a new communications environment is developing around an evolving network of new media, which is high capacity, interactive and multimedia. The result is a new era of producer-consumer interaction. Because of the speed of technological innovation, the new media advertising paradigm that results will attain prominence faster than did mass media adverti...

Ethical Judgments of Sexual Appeals in Print Advertising

Abstract: This study explores consumers' ethical judgments about the use of sexual appeals in print advertising. It specifically focuses upon responses on the Reidenbach-Robin multidimensional ethics scale, ad attitude, brand attitude, and purchase intentions. The findings indicate that, regardless of the respondent's gender, the use of a strong overt sexual appeal in a print advertisement was not well received. Consequently, advertisers need to rethink the use of strong overt sexual appeals, especially given the controversial issues surrounding such advertising stimuli and their popular use to break through media clutter.

A Revised Communication Model for Advertising: Multiple Dimensions of the Source, the Message, and the Recipient

Abstract: The purpose of this paper is to present a revised communication model that describes advertising by drawing upon its kinship with crafted text rather than with everyday speech. The model expands the traditional communication triad by inscribing advertisers, promotional text, and consumers as multidimensional participants in a complex interactive process. The paper begins by presenting the rationale for treating commercial messages as written “text” and recategorizing them as more complex than the oral discourse of word-of-mouth conversations. It next summarizes the steps by which the original oral communication model is transformed from speech to literature to advertising. It then discusses the expanded triad, considering multiple aspects of the source, the message, and consumer-recipients. It concludes with suggestions for research using the revised model to investigate gaps in knowledge about source credibility, message/media effects, and the interactive consumer.

Changing media consumption in a new home: Acculturation patterns among hong kong immigrants to Canada

Abstract: This study investigates (1) how immigrant consumers change their media consumption when they move across cultural boundaries and (2) whether media exposure relates to consumers' acculturation of the new social norms. A total of 938 respondents from four sample groups including Hong Kong residents, long-time and new Hong Kong immigrants to Canada and English-speaking Caucasian Canadians responded to a predesigned questionnaire. It was found that while the immigrant groups did not increase their total media consumption, their consumption across different media types followed both assimilation and ethnic affirmation models. This acculturation process seemed to be affected by immigrants' original media consumption behavior and language ability. Media exposure was found to relate significantly to immigrants' acculturation of the new social norms after influences due to personal characteristics were removed.

Beauty Before the Eyes of Beholders: The Cultural Encoding of Beauty Types in Magazine Advertising and Music Television

Abstract: Although researchers have conceptualized beauty as unidimensional, modern-day cultural definitions of beauty are multidimensional This paper focuses on two forms of mass media that play an important role in transmitting information about multiple and diverse cultural ideals of beauty—fashion magazine advertising and music videos shown on music television We examine the overall prevalence of different beauty ideals and how these are distributed across specific vehicles within each medium We also compare the emphasis placed on different ideals of beauty across these two communications media (print vs television) and formats (advertising vs entertainment) The implications of the findings for understanding the cultural construction of beauty ideals and for understanding how advertising and other mass media communications contribute to them are discussed Several extensions of the present research are proposed

Ethics in Advertising: Ideological Correlates of Consumer Perceptions

Abstract: This study investigates the perceptions of familiar advertising controversies that are obtained from a diverse sample of 292 consumers Topics from two broad categories of advertising practices are investigated: targeting practices and message strategies For each topic, consumer perceptions are analyzed as a function of the participants' moral ideologies of idealism and relativism, dimensions obtained from the Ethics Position Questionnaire Results show that consumers believe advertising often violates broad ethical norms In addition, the degree to which consumers judge advertising as ethical or unethical varies as a function of their relativism and idealism

The Use of Figures of Speech in Print Ad Headlines

Abstract: A content analysis of 2183 print ads with a headline was conducted to investigate the frequency with which figures of speech and figure categories are used in ad headlines and the extent to which selected executional factors relate to their use. A figure of speech entails the use of words in a manner that is varied from common use. Delineation of forty-one figures of speech, organized by functional similarity, is provided along with a review of relevant research literature. Results revealed that selected figures of speech, including alliteration, assonance and puns are widely used, whereas others are not. Various executional factors were found to be related to figure use. Implications of the results for the practice of advertising are provided and research directions outlined.

Research on Advertising Ethics: Past, Present, and Future

Abstract: Research on advertising ethics, as revealed by a search of the ABI/Inform database, shows that advertising ethics has been, and continues to be, a mainstream topic in advertising research. Present beliefs about such research, as expressed by a random sample of academicians in the American Academy of Advertising, include the belief that practitioners are uninterested in ethics research. Beliefs about the future of such research, as forecast by the same academicians, include the need for better measures related to ethics. Other promising research topics are use of deception, advertising to children, ads for legal vices, negative political ads, and stereotyping in ads.

A Content Analysis of Animation and Animated Spokes-Characters in Television Commercials

Abstract: This study employed content analysis to examine animation and animated spokes-characters in television advertising. The majority of spokes-characters observed in this study were humans, animal personifications, or product personifications. Characters were more likely to speak for the product than provide visual demonstration although they did both in more than half the cases. There were far more non-celebrity than celebrity spokes-characters, and a large majority of them were male. Significant differences were found in the use of animation across dayparts, program types, product classes and product categories. Although no increase was evident in the use of animation since the last study was completed, there was evidence to suggest that the role of animation has been changing in the past decade. Findings indicate that animated spokes-characters are being used more often to present high involvement products to adult audiences.

Testing the Cross-National Applicability of U.S. and Russian Advertising Belief and Attitude Measures

Abstract: Examining the cross-national applicability of advertising measures is becoming increasingly important, especially in rapidly changing countries such as Russia Therefore, our study's purpose is first to demonstrate recommended procedures for testing the cross-national equivalence of advertising belief and attitude measures Then, we conduct an initial cross-national comparison of beliefs and attitudes toward advertising in general between student samples from both the US (n=148) and from Russia (n=64) Results indicate that, while Russian respondents felt advertising is more essential, US respondents felt advertising resulted in greater negative social effects Also, US respondents were more favorable toward the institution of advertising (its purpose and effects), with no differences for the instrument of advertising (its methods and practices) Russian respondents' attitudes toward advertising in general were more favorable than those of US respondents

Sexuality and Ethics in Advertising: A Research Agenda and Policy Guideline Perspective

Abstract: Sexuality in advertising is a major area of ethical concern, though surprisingly little is known about its effects or the norms for its use. The author suggests a framing perspective on these two issues that consists of (1) a research agenda concerning the alleged effects and morality of sexual appeals (i.e., teleological vs. deontological considerations) and (2) a set of ethics-based, policy guidelines for addressing these issues (i.e., choice enhancement vs. consumer protection). Applying this framing perspective, the author provides a basis for making ethical choices about the use of sexual appeals in advertising.

Ethical Judgments of Political Television Commercials as Predictors of Attitude toward the Ad

Abstract: This study examines the impact of ethical judgments about televised political commercials on global attitude toward the ad. Findings from the quasi-experiment indicate that the “ethical” attribute belongs to a set of salient, “utilitarian” cognitions that influence how political commercials are evaluated. These findings suggest that ethical perceptions really matter. However, certain emotional “hedonic” cognitive responses, which voters say are nonsalient in their overall evaluations of political ads, in fact may circumvent the powerful impact of ethical—and other salient—cognitive elements. Implications for political advertising strategy and public policy are discussed.

Advertising Ethics: Emerging Methods and Trends

Abstract: What is Ethics? What is Advertising? The contemporary philosopher, William Frankena (1973), has defined ethics as a set of moral principles directed at enhancing societal well-being. Frankena reduces those moral principles to two: beneficence (doing good) and justice (being fair). Another contemporary philosopher, Geoffrey Warnock (1971), lists four principles which seem to be particularly appropriate for advertising: beneficence, nonmaleficence (don't harm), nondeception, and nondiscrimination. At times, questions have arisen as to whether such principles are followed and whether societal well-being is, indeed, enhanced by the actions of advertisers.

Western Concepts, Russian Perspectives: Meanings of Advertising in the Former Soviet Union

Abstract: Western advertising professionals base their interpretations of advertising in the former Soviet Union on a Western model of advertising and neglect Russian perspectives on advertising. Symbolic interactionism suggests that things have different meanings for different people at different times. The author discusses the influence of Russian culture on advertising in the former Soviet Union and the problem of imposing Western concepts. A month-long research study was conducted in Moscow, Russia in May 1991. Interviews with government officials, business and advertising industry professionals, academicians, and students were audiotaped. Findings suggest that advertising in the former Soviet Union is an interaction between social and economic realities and not just a means of uncovering a new marketplace.

The Sense of "Nonsense": Japanese TV Advertising

Abstract: Various explanations for the well-known “soft-sell” style adopted in Japanese TV ads are examined. The common culturally based explanation is found wanting, as is an alternative explanation based o...

The Prisoner's Dilemma and the Role of Information in Setting Advertising Budgets

Abstract: This study examines how advertising budget setting, framed as a prisoner's dilemma, is affected by information on the competitive situation and characteristics of the decision maker. Hypotheses are tested using experiments in which subjects set advertising budgets. Results indicate that subjects were generally competitive, but also based their strategy selections on what they expected their opponents to do, what their opponents did last time, whether the competitive relationship was expected to continue, market shares, and whether the subject's profit objectives were short- or long-term. Individual differences also played a part in determining strategy selection.

The narrative paradigm as a perspective for improving ethical evaluations of advertisements

Abstract: Recently, an increased number of advertisements have been questioned as being potentially unethical. Because of complaints from academicians, special interest groups, competitors, and broadcasters, certain advertising campaigns have been pulled from the media. The fact that potentially unethical ads are reaching the marketplace suggests that current methods of ad evaluation may be inadequate for some of today's controversial or innovative campaigns. The authors introduce the narrative paradigm as a possible solution or tool for discerning potentially unethical aspects of advertisements. A narrative approach to the evaluation of ad messages can reveal inconsistencies between the ad and the intended or influential audiences before the damaging effects of inappropriate campaigns occur.

International Advertising: A Research Agenda

Abstract: The advertising community has long recognized that there are important international issues which are closely linked to communication decisions. For instance, in the first twenty years of publication, the Journal of Advertising (JA) published 29 articles on the topic of international advertising; thus, more than 16% of all articles directly addressed global issues. Of these 29 articles, seven concentrated on European advertising; five described advertising in Asia (including 3 articles which focused on Japan); and four addressed communication issues in developing nations (including Brazil). At least eleven articles discussed global issues in general, without concentrating on a particular country or pair of countries. At a very early point in the academic literature, it was recognized that advertising practices and results differ across cultures. For example, more than thirty years ago, Stridsberg (1962) argued that marketing experiences and strategies may not transfer so easily across European borders. Specifically, he argued that there is no reason to assume that Belgian consumers should behave like other Europeans in general. At the same time, academics and managers realized that world markets were developing in some industries and that communications media had the potential to reach across national borders. In 1961, Elinder proposed that a European-style of advertising was developing that is, a style which could be popular and successful in many European countries at once. In addition, Elinder predicted that a uniform "world style" of advertising would soon develop. Levitt (1983) expanded upon this argument and proposed that the globalization of advertising strategy serves to achieve economies of scale which in turn lead to a reduction of costs and prices.

Advertising to Investors: The Effect of Financial-Relations Advertising on Stock Volume and Price

Abstract: Financial-relations advertising is a major type of corporate advertising, yet little research has addressed its effectiveness. The authors use a time-series approach to study the effect of financial-relations advertising on stock trading volume and stock price. They find increases in trading volume at the initial appearance of a financial-relations advertisement, but not during subsequent appearances of the ad. Further, these increases occur mainly for small capitalization firms. No support is found for the view that this type of advertising positively affects stock prices, at least in the short run. Although financial-relations advertising may change the expectations of individual investors, such advertising does not appear to change the market's view of a stock.

Increasing cognitive response sensitivity

Abstract: Traditional cognitive response elicitation procedures may not be sensitive enough to elicit the stylized and subtle thoughts that are generated during exposure to certain types of ads. When these types of thoughts are the focus of an advertising researcher's work, it is critical that he or she develop a procedure that has the sensitivity to draw them forth without being reactive. A laboratory study examines two different procedures to do this: pre-exposure exercises and directed post-exposure instructions. The results suggest that each procedure raises measurement sensitivity, but that there is no advantage in combining them. General guidelines are then presented for developing stylized cognitive response elicitation procedures.

Dependency Theory and the Effects of Advertising by Foreign-Based Multinational Corporations in Latin America

Abstract: Dependency Theory is a major paradigm of developmental economics that differs sharply from classical economic theory on a number of points. According to Dependency Theory, the ongoing economic, political, social, and cultural transformations within Latin America bring with them a greater reliance on an expanding capitalistic world system. Through this world system, advanced nations extract surplus value from underdeveloped nations, thus keeping the latter underdeveloped and condemning them to perpetual class conflicts and oppressive governments. This theory, which is accepted by many educated Latin Americans, largely explains the chilly reception that many foreign-based multinational corporations have received in Latin America. After a short introduction, four tenets of Dependency Theory are considered that are relevant to consumer advertising by foreign-based multinational corporations. Then, the evidence for and against seven propositions are considered: four of which concern conspicuous consum...

Crisis in Advertising

Abstract: Crisis in Advertising? The word “crisis” (Stewart 1992) may be too strong to describe the current situation in the advertising industry, but no one can deny that these are trying times for advertisers. Current trends in the industry are indeed cause for alarm. However, to paraphrase Mark Twain, Rust and Oliver's (1994) report that advertising is suffering from a terminal illness is greatly exaggerated. The disturbing trends of the 90s are not necessarily permanent, and the industry's future may be much brighter than suggested. In what follows, we offer alternative explanations for today's problems and suggest an optimistic future for the industry rather than “impending doom.”