Showing papers in "Journal of Business Ethics in 1985"
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors draw upon existing theories of motivation and power relationships to propose a model of the whistle-blowing process, focusing on decisions made by organization members who believe they have evidence of organizational wrongdoing, and the reactions of organization authorities.
Abstract: Research on whistle-blowing has been hampered by a lack of a sound theoretical base. In this paper, we draw upon existing theories of motivation and power relationships to propose a model of the whistle-blowing process. This model focuses on decisions made by organization members who believe they have evidence of organizational wrongdoing, and the reactions of organization authorities. Based on a review of the sparse empirical literature, we suggest variables that may affect both the members' decisions and the organization's responses.
894 citations
TL;DR: In this article, the authors focus on contemporary definitions of business ethics by business writers and professionals and on possible areas of agreement among the available definitions, and synthesize a definition that is broad enough to cover the field of management in a sense as full as most managers might conceive of it.
Abstract: Business ethics is a topic receiving much attention in the literature. However, the term ‘business ethics’ is not adequately defined. Typical definitions refer to the rightness or wrongness of behavior, but not everyone agrees on what is morally right or wrong, good or bad, ethical or unethical. To complicate the problem, nearly all available definitions exist at highly abstract levels. This article focuses on contemporary definitions of business ethics by business writers and professionals and on possible areas of agreement among the available definitions. Then a definition is synthesized that is broad enough to cover the field of management in a sense as full as most managers might conceive of it.
310 citations
TL;DR: In this paper, the results of a questionnaire administered to 1,178 undergraduate students and discusses how they responded to ten situations which asked them to assess their personal evaluation of the ethical acceptability, how society would similarly assess the situation and how business persons would respond.
Abstract: This paper reports the results of a questionnaire administered to 1,178 undergraduate students and discusses how they responded to ten situations which asked them to assess their personal evaluation of the ethical acceptability, how society would similarly assess the situation and how business persons would respond. Multiple versions of the instrument were developed to investigate if the sex of the person involved in the situation would influence the respondents’ perception of the ethical action involved. No differences were identified. Further, the image of business persons as less ethical than society in general seems to have evaporated.
236 citations
TL;DR: A survey of 487 adult, MBA, and undergraduate business students on the business philosophies of Machiavellianism, Darwinism, Objectivism, Relativism, and Universalism showed that prospective managers tend to be less ethical than practicing ones.
Abstract: While the media and public opinion polls suggest that the state of business ethics is declining, surveys of corporate managers on the subject are less than conclusive. This study presents results of a survey of 487 adult, MBA, and undergraduate business students on the business philosophies of Machiavellianism, Darwinism, Objectivism, Relativism, and Universalism. The findings were consistent with earlier research which showed prospective managers to be less ethical than practicing ones and that women and those reporting a strong religious conviction tend to be more ethical. Explanations and several recommendations for improving the situation are offered.
198 citations
TL;DR: The authors argue that human beings possess the rational capabilities necessary to achieve the goal of more just and peaceable social orders, but that our educational institutions are failing in their responsibility to do what in fact can be done to produce graduates who make decisions in ways most likely to achieve this goal.
Abstract: This paper argues that human beings possess the rational capabilities necessary to achieve the goal of more just and peaceable social orders, but that our educational institutions are failing in their responsibility to do what in fact can be done to produce graduates who make decisions in ways most likely to achieve this goal. Data compiled by us, consistent with other research, indicates that only a small percentage of the individuals graduating from universities and professional schools have developed the capacity for post-conventional moral reasoning.
79 citations
TL;DR: In this article, the authors examined the reasons for the omission of these courses, and concluded that faculty in the major disciplines and techniques of management do not recognize the complexity of ethical problems or the importance of ethical decisions in the overall management of large business organizations.
Abstract: A recent survey indicated that the majority of schools of business administration do not offer courses in business ethics and/or the social responsibilities of business firms. The author examines the reasons for the omission of these courses, and concludes that faculty in the major disciplines and techniques of management do not recognize the complexity of ethical problems or the importance of ethical decisions in the overall management of large business organizations.
67 citations
TL;DR: The authors examines several issues regarding deception in advertising and proposes an alternative definition for legal/regulatory purposes and is related to a suggested definition of the term deception as it is used in everyday language.
Abstract: This paper examines several issues regarding deception in advertising. Some generally accepted definitions are considered and found to be inadequate. An alternative definition is proposed for legal/regulatory purposes and is related to a suggested definition of the term deception as it is used in everyday language. Based upon these definitions, suggestions are offered for detecting and regulating deception in advertising. This paper additionally considers the grounds for the generally held but largely unquestioned assumption that deceptive advertising is unethical. It is argued that deceptive advertising can be shown to be morally objectionable, on the weak assumption that it is prima facie wrong to harm others. Finally, the implications of this analysis with respect to current regulation of deceptive advertising by the FTC are considered.
52 citations
TL;DR: In this article, the authors argue that bribery is wrong because it violates fundamental notion of equality and it undermines the vitality of the institutions affected, and they argue that it violates the principle of equality.
Abstract: The article argues that bribery is wrong because it violates fundamental notion of equality and it undermines the vitality of the institutions affected.
37 citations
TL;DR: In this article, an ethical algorithm for multinational managers to reconcile conflicts between those traditions and ones of the host country is presented. But it is not clear whether the high road implies a failure to respect cultural diversity and national integrity.
Abstract: How should highly-placed multinational managers, typically schooled in home country moral traditions, reconcile conflicts between those traditions and ones of the host country? When host country standards for pollution, discrimination, and salary schedules appear substandard from the perspective of the home country, should the manager take the high road and implement home country standards? Or does the high road imply a failure to respect cultural diversity and national integrity? In this paper, I construct and defend an ethical algorithm for multinational managers to use in reconciling such international normative conflicts.
34 citations
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors link management action with business ethics by using two conceptual models of decision making (bounded rationality and preferred decision styles) to examine the important processes of information gathering and information processing.
Abstract: This essay seeks to link management action with business ethics. It utilizes two conceptual models of decision making (bounded rationality and preferred decision styles) to examine the important processes of information gathering and information processing. This analysis is then related to the ethical aspects of a business decision to help explain differences in the selection of ethical criteria.
32 citations
TL;DR: The probability threshold position as discussed by the authors states that society should ignore very small risks, i.e., those causing an average annual probability of fatality of less than 10−6, unless the risk is sufficiently large.
Abstract: Many scientists, businessmen, and government regulators believe that the criteria for acceptable societal risk are too stringent. Those who subscribe to this belief often accept the view which I call “the probability-threshold position.” Proponents of this stance maintain that society ought to ignore very small risks, i.e., those causing an average annual probability of fatality of less than 10−6.
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors argue that managers who choose to emphasize ethics and who skillfully articulate their importance can improve the integration of ethics into the day-to-day operating decisions of the firm.
Abstract: The management process affects the level of ethical performance in organizational life. As one part of this process, managers establish priorities which give direction to an organization. In business firms, management typically stresses the attainment of profits and other related economic and technical factors. Since little explicit recognition is given to ethics, the resulting climate makes it easy to ignore ethical factors. Changing this situation by making ethics a significant part of the corporate culture is difficult and requires a combination of management communication and management example. However, managers who choose to emphasize ethics and who skillfully articulate their importance can improve the integration of ethics into the day-to-day operating decisions of the firm.
TL;DR: In this article, the authors examine spiritual growth and the business career and argue that the world of business becomes a necessary step on the path of enlightenment, through the transcendant philosophical models of the Hindu householder and the Native American Medicine Wheel.
Abstract: This article examines spiritual growth and the business career. Rather than a certain decline into workaholism or materialism, the world of business becomes a necessary step on the path of enlightenment, through the transcendant philosophical models of the Hindu householder and the Native American Medicine Wheel.
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors present an insight into the answer to this question and into the beliefs and norms of behavior that foster either a candid corporate culture or a culture that lacks candor.
Abstract: In 1982 Posner and Schmidt surveyed the values of 1400 managers. The survey revealed that honesty was one of the qualities that these managers admired most in themselves. An earlier study by Brennan and Molander indicated that managers believed that honesty in communication was their greatest ethical challenge. If honesty is a prevalent value among managers then why is honesty in communication their greatest ethical challenge? This paper presents an insight into the answer to this question and into the beliefs and norms of behavior that foster either a candid corporate culture or a culture that lacks candor.
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors interviewed a sampling of 115 twenty-five year old men starting out in business and found them to be an optimistic, tractable, incurious lot, dedicated to family and community service.
Abstract: Over a quarter of a century ago in 1955 Fortune magazine staff interviewed a sampling of 115 twenty-five year old men (notice: men not women) starting out in business and found them to be an optimistic, tractable, incurious lot, dedicated to family and community service. 1 These young men were the same managers whom William H. Whyte Jr. named "the organization men ''2 and Michael Maccoby called "company men". 3 The organization men had strong loyalty to their companies. The corporations provided an immediate personal identity for them; indeed, corporations granted legitimacy
TL;DR: In this article, data collected from 302 managers were used to examine the association between seven background and work experience variables and managerial attitudes regarding the ethics, locus, affect of OP on the organization, and the motives behind political maneuvering in the workplace.
Abstract: Empirical studies exploring managerial views of organizational politics (OP) are scarce. Furthermore, the literature is replete with inconsistent results regarding the correlates of OP. In this paper, data collected from 302 managers were used to examine the association between seven background and work experience variables and managerial attitudes regarding the ethics, locus, affect of OP on the organization, and the motives behind political maneuvering in the workplace. The results, however, show that association between managers' background and work experience factors and attitudes regarding OP is weak. The results suggest several promising lines of inquiry for future research.
TL;DR: This article used selected ideas from microeconomics, ethics, and elementary game theory in an effort to gain some understanding of the controversial issue of bribery in international markets, and their goal is partial charification of the issue and increased awareness of alternative remedy strategies.
Abstract: This essay ranges widely, using selected ideas from microeconomics, ethics, and elementary game theory in an effort to gain some understanding of the controversial issue of bribery in international markets. Its goal is partial charification of the issue and increased awareness of alternative remedy strategies.
TL;DR: In this article, the authors distinguish between two problems related to business ethics: (1) How can business ethics help morally conscientious business people to resolve moral problems in business? (2) Given the widespread belief that immorality, or at least amorality is too prevalent in business, how can one discover both the sources of business amoralality and immorality and make business as morally respectable an institution as possible?
Abstract: I distinguish between two problems related to business ethics. (1) How can business ethics help morally conscientious business people to resolve moral problems in business? (2) Given the widespread belief that immorality, or at least amorality, is too prevalent in business, how can one discover both the sources of business amorality and immorality and make business as morally respectable an institution as possible? Philosophers who have concerned themselves with business ethics have emphasized (1), i.e., they consider the normative ethical principles applicable to solving moral questions in business. Although some benefit can be derived from this approach, there are a number of problems with this position. I then argue that, in considering (2), we ought to analyze business life styles (ideals) that have determined the character of American business people, and show both their negative and positive moral consequences. This analysis reveals the morality, or lack of it, in modern American business, possible changes in business morality, and possible ways of developing a desirable and viable business ethic. In a sketchy way, I show how this project can be developed.
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors explore the notion that corporations have moral rights within the context of a constitutive rules model of corporate moral agency, and argue that the moral agency of corporations is dependent on the choices of those whose acceptence of the relevant rules constitutes the corporation as a moral agent.
Abstract: My aim in this paper is to explore the notion that corporations have moral rights within the context of a constitutive rules model of corporate moral agency. The first part of the paper will briefly introduce the notion of moral rights, identifying the distinctive feature of moral rights, as contrasted with other moral categories, in Vlastos' terms of overridingness. The second part will briefly summarize the constitutive rules approach to the moral agency of corporations (a la French, Smith, Ozar) and pose the question of the paper. The third part will argue that, since the moral agency of corporations is dependent on the choices of those whose acceptence of the relevant rules constitutes the corporation as a moral agent, the rights of corporations are conventional; that is, they exist because they are so created. Thus, as a first answer, corporations do not have moral rights. But this raises a further question which we must explore. Once a corporation has been constituted, by the acceptance of the relevant rules by the relevant persons, does the corporation then have rights which endure? Can those who have constituted a corporation with certain rights morally change or cancel those rights in medias res without doing some sort of moral violence to the corporation? Do corporations at least have a moral right to persist in the conventional rights with which they were constituted? The balance of the paper will explore this question. I shall speak of the overriding character of a corporation's claim that its conventional rights persist, and also the important way in which such a moral claim is non-conventional, if such a claim can be made at all. But I shall argue in conclusion that corporations do not have such a right. But I shall also argue that those persons whose acts have originally constituted the corporation as a moral agent may well have rights which would be violated if the conventional rights of the corporation were changed or terminated without their participation.
TL;DR: In this article, the authors present four levels of ethical behavior in business gleaned from the words of the Talmud, i.e., an individual is just barely inside the law; the highest level is the way of the pious; and the lowest level is "the way of a prophet".
Abstract: The Talmud, the compilation of Jewish oral law, is over 1500 years old and includes extensive discussions of business ethics. This paper presents four levels of ethical behavior in business gleaned from the words of the Talmud. At the lowest level, an individual is just barely inside the law; the highest level is “the way of the pious”. The author has attempted to relate the ethics in ancient business situations to business practices today.
TL;DR: The International Boycott of Infant Formula (IBFPA) campaign as mentioned in this paper was the first major effort against infant formula production in less-developed countries (LDCs) and involved many nations, international and national public agencies, non-profit organizations, scientific research institutions, large church denominations, and every company in the industry.
Abstract: One of the most controversial issues to face any industry has been the infant formula problem, especially in the less-developed countries (LDCs). Producers of infant formula were confronted with a boycott which evolved from a grass-roots level to one which involved many nations, international and national public agencies, non-profit organizations, scientific research institutions, large church denominations, and every company in the industry. An international boycott was aimed at Nestle, one of the largest producers of infant formula.
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors used cognitive developmental psychology to create a business ethics course that has philosophical integrity, which was designed to teach an appreciation for the practical necessity of philosophy in a pluralistic society.
Abstract: This paper discusses how to use cognitive developmental psychology to create a business ethics course that has philosophical integrity. It begins with the pedagogical problem to be overcome when students are not philosophy majors. To provide a context for the practical recommendations, Kohlberg's cognitive developmental theory is summarized and then the relationship between Kohlberg's theory, normative philosophy, and teaching is analyzed. The conclusion recommends strategies that should help overcome some of the vexing pedagogical problems mentioned in the first section. In particular, the approach is designed to teach an appreciation for the practical necessity of philosophy in a pluralistic society.
TL;DR: This article argued that the informative and persuasive dichotomy of advertising is an empty concept and that all advertising messages perform only one function and that function is to persuade and not to inform and inform.
Abstract: This paper argues that the informative and persuasive dichotomy of advertising is an empty concept All advertising messages perform only one function and that function is to persuade It is pointed out that in a moral appraisal of an advertising message, a distinction between rational and irrational persuasion can be made Rational persuasion is consistent with the autonomy of the consumer and hence moral Some forms of irrational persuasion may have an adverse effect on consumer autonomy and, therefore, should be viewed as immoral
TL;DR: In this article, the attitudes of management in the UK toward corporate social accountability were investigated during the peak period of concern for social responsibility by all interested parties (1974-1979) during the 1970s and 1980s.
Abstract: Few issues seem to have more long-term impact upon the relations between business and society than those of corporate attitudes toward greater public accountability, corporate behaviours in response to such attitudes, and societal reaction to those behaviours. Nevertheless, there has been relatively little rigorous behavioural research of managerial attitudes toward corporate social accountability. This empirical study researches the attitudes of management in Britain toward corporate social accountability. It assesses the corporate concern for social responsibility during the peak period of such concern by all interested parties (1974–1979).
TL;DR: In this paper, the distinction between moral rules and moral ideals is presented and explained in various ways, and the authors propose that people in business are required to obey the moral rules, and have a choice with respect to ideals.
Abstract: The distinction between moral rules and moral ideals is presented and explained in various ways. The authors propose that people in business are required to obey the moral rules and have a choice with respect to ideals. Thus, they are not in a different position from that of anyone else in society.
TL;DR: In this article, a line argument for resolving micro-ethical problems when their affinity to macro-ethical issues is noted is made. But this line of argument is not considered in this paper.
Abstract: As in the field of economics, the questions of business ethics can be divided into two distinguishable types — micro and macro. Micro-ethical questions arise primarily for subordinates in an organization and concern what should be done when the demands of conscience conflict with perceived occupational requirements. Macro-ethical questions arise principally for superiors and concern the setting of policy for the organization in general. The present article elaborates upon this distinction and advances a line argument for resolving micro-ethical problems when their affinity to macro-ethical issues is noted.
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors develop an account of employee rights and defend this conception against what they take to be the strongest in-principle objections to it, and present a set of guidelines for defining and defending employee rights.
Abstract: Recent trends in business ethics along with growing attacks upon unions, suggest that employee rights will be a major social concern for business managers during the next decade. However, in most of the discussions of employee rights to date, the very meaning and legitimacy of such rights are often uncritically taken for granted. In this paper, we develop an account of employee rights and defend this conception against what we take to be the strongest in-principle objections to it.
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors argue that using the poker game analogy is imprudent, its use undermines trust and ignores the cooperative features of business, and its use fails to take into account the values of dignity and fairness which should characterize labor-management negotiations.
Abstract: In this paper I argue that the poker analogy is unsuitable as a model for collective bargaining negotiations. Using the poker game analogy is imprudent, its use undermines trust and ignores the cooperative features of business, and its use fails to take into account the values of dignity and fairness which should characterize labor-management negotiations. I propose and defend a model of ideal family decision-making as a superior model to the poker game.
TL;DR: For example, business bluffing is an act of puffing at best and misrepresentation or fraud at worst as discussed by the authors, and its legality and morality are already well defined and discussions of the subject should be directed along these established pathes.
Abstract: ‘Business bluffing’ as a subject has been mentioned in various journals for at least the past 16 years. Its treatment has become one of apparent serious intent to identify it as a subject matter unto itself. Definitionally and theoretically, its essence has been specified but seemingly without due regard to its true nature. Business bluffing is an act of puffing at best and misrepresentation or fraud at worst. In either case, its legality and morality are already well defined and discussions of the subject should be directed along these established pathes.
TL;DR: The task of preparing a case is similar to writing a legal brief or an essay insofar as all three should contain a thesis or main point and argumentation or logically arranged facts and inferences, but case studies should not contain a conclusion.
Abstract: The task of preparing a case is similar to writing a legal brief or an essay insofar as all three should contain a thesis or main point and argumentation or logically arranged facts and inferences. However, different from a brief or an essay, case studies should not contain a conclusion. A case should lead the reader through the facts, but it should not offer a firm or fixed resolution or moral judgment. Ideally it should leave the reader with the opportunity to create and insert their own conclusion. A good case study should be amenable to the following kinds of questions or analysis procedures: