Showing papers in "Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology in 1978"
TL;DR: The authors found that bilingual children showed a greater awareness of certain properties of language and were better able to evaluate contradictory statements, and suggested that bilingualism can increase the child's metalinguistic awareness and promote an analytic orientation to linguistic input.
Abstract: Tasks designed to assess children's level of metalinguistic awareness and their ability to evaluate contradictory and tautological statements were administered in Ireland to grade 3 and grade 6 English-Irish bilingual children and control groups of unilingual children matched on IQ, SES, sex, and age. At both grade levels the bilingual children showed a greater awareness of certain properties of language and were better able to evaluate contradictory statements. It is suggested that bilingualism can increase the child's metalinguistic awareness and promote an analytic orientation to linguistic input.
336Â citations
TL;DR: This article found that the British adopted a more finely differentiated view of uncertainty, both verbally and numerically, than the Asians in response to uncertain situations, and the largest cultural difference was found between Asian and British student groups.
Abstract: Cultural differences in three aspects of "probabilistic thinking" were studied. The study re-presents part of earlier work in Hong Kong and Britain and combines it with the results from a further study in Indonesia and Malaysia. The largest cultural difference was found between Asian and British student groups. The British adopted a more finely differentiated view of uncertainty, both verbally and numerically, than the Asians in response to uncertain situations. These differences are predictable neither on the basis of the relative abundance of probability expressions in the Indonesian language nor by the Malay samples' ability to discriminate English probability words on a meaningful probability discrimination dimension. For numerical probabilities assigned to almanac questions, the British were less extreme and better calibrated than the Asian students. Potential cultural influences which could account for the cultural differences were examined, and the possibility that Asian ways of dealing with uncert...
168Â citations
TL;DR: The functional relationship among culture, category width (a cognitive individual difference variable), and social attributions was examined in this article, which indicated the potential power of category width in cross-cultural research and the importance of a model-building approach to understand the reasons for the effects of culture on psychological phenomena.
Abstract: The functional relationship among culture, category width (a cognitive individual difference variable), and social attributions was examined. Since these variables have not all been investigated in the same study previously, it has not been possible to build an adequate model of the relationships among them. Trukese and American subjects were administered a new, cross-culturally applicable measure of category width and were then presented with paragraphs describing an interaction between two men. Attributions about the men were elicited. Analyses indicated that the best general model of the relationship among culture, category width, and attributions is one in which category width mediates cultural effects: culture influences category width which in turn influences attributions. This result indicates the potential power of category width in cross-cultural research and the importance of a model-building approach to understanding the reasons for the effects of culture on psychological phenomena.
70Â citations
TL;DR: In this article, a definition of tightness is proposed which recognizes role relatedness as its major structural referent, and specifies one particular dimension of relatedness (the imposed and received nature of role expectations) as primary in determining degree of tighteness.
Abstract: Traditional,simple/complex" typologies for categorizing societies have proven inadequate to allow a meaningful ordering and interpretation of data generated by cross-cultural research. Another dimension of social structure is gradually coming into focus to amend this inadequacy, namely structural tightness/looseness. As presently conceived, however, it is not entirely clear what the structural referents of tightness/ looseness are, resulting in some ambiguity in the literature utilizing the concept. In order to achieve greater conceptual clarity, therefore, a definition of tightness is proposed which recognizes role relatedness (rather than diversity) as its major structural referent, and specifies one particular dimension of relatedness (the imposed and received nature of role expectations) as primary in determining degree of tightness.
65Â citations
TL;DR: This article found that from second to third generation, Mexican American children increasingly approach Anglo American norms with respect to field independence, reading achievement, and math achievement, but no significant effects of generational level were found with regard to locus of control.
Abstract: Measures of field independence, locus of control, self-esteem, and school achievement were obtained for 144 Anglo American and Mexican American fourth, fifth, and sixth grade children from a "traditional" Mexican American community. From second to third generation, Mexican American children increasingly approach Anglo American norms with respect to field independence, reading achievement, and math achievement. Opposite trends were obtained with regard to self-esteem; no significant effects of generational level were found with regard to locus of control. Several possible explanations of the apparent paradox of decreasing self-esteem alongside increasing achievement levels with generation are suggested.
64Â citations
TL;DR: In this article, the cross-cultural feasibility of the internal-external control of reinforcement construct was examined further by using the Levenson's IPC Scale and an information questionnaire to compare the two groups.
Abstract: To examine further the cross-cultural feasibility of the internal-external control of reinforcement construct, one part of the study was conducted in Taiwan, using 517 Chinese college students, and the other part consisted of 423 American college students. Levenson's IPC Scale and an information questionnaire were used to compare the two groups. After translating the materials into Chinese for the Chinese subjects, comparisons of the locus of control concept between the two cultures and between sexes were made. In general, similar patterns between males and females on the IPC were found for both American and Chinese students, and I, P, and C were also found to correlate with a similar number of confidence and expectancy variables for the two cultures. These results, taken together and compared with data from previous studies, suggest that the locus of control variable may be tapping some basic psychological dimension common to both cultures.
54Â citations
TL;DR: In this article, the development with age of moral judgments was studied in three groups of Turkish children, adolescents, and young adults in a rural village and two cities, and the results showed that the stage sequence of development for all three groups was the same as has previously been found for other Western and non-western samples.
Abstract: The development with age of moral judgments was studied in three groups of Turkish children, adolescents, and young adults. Males 10 to 25 years old were studied in a rural village and two cities. Subjects responded to moral dilemmas and their responses were scored for stage of development. Cross-sectional and some longitudinal data showed that the stage sequence of development for all three Turkish groups was the same as has previously been found for other Western and non-Western samples. Some differences were found between the three Turkish groups; these were differences in rate of development through the sequence of stages.
53Â citations
TL;DR: The authors found that the bias favoring white and light-skinned human figures was more highly correlated with age among Japanese children and therefore seemed more likely to be attributable to cultural learning, whereas in the United States and Western Europe, the bias was more prevalent with age.
Abstract: Previous studies of preschool children in the United States and Western Europe had demonstrated a bias favoring the color white relative to the color black, and a bias favoring light-skinned human figures. In this study, procedures used in previous studies were translated and administered to Japanese preschoolers, aged 40 to 73 months. Both types of bias were found among the Japanese children indicating that pro-white and pro-light-skinned biases are not confined to Western groups. An interesting difference was the indication that the biases were more highly correlated with age among Japanese children and, hence, seemed more likely to be attributable to cultural learning.
38Â citations
TL;DR: This paper examined the study of conservation among the Wolof of Senegal as illustrative of methodological problems in cross-cultural Piagetian research and found that cultural conventions governing the organization of talk are more likely to explain the responses of unschooled Wolof than is "magical thinking."
Abstract: This paper examines the study of conservation among the Wolof of Senegal as illustrative of methodological problems in cross-cultural Piagetian research. Experiments carried out by Greenfield are compared with more recent investigations conducted in the same area of Senegal. The results suggest that cultural conventions governing the organization of talk are more likely to explain the responses of unschooled Wolof than is "magical thinking."
35Â citations
TL;DR: In this article, continuous associations to 30 of the 1910 Kent-Rosanoff stimulus-words were obtained from a group of students in the University of Lagos, Nigeria, and compared with the discrete data from U.S. college students in 1963 Minnesota norms.
Abstract: Two purposes guided this study. The first was to test Rosenzweig's (1961) proposition that "associative habits are equivalent among different communities," and the second was to determine categories of associations characterizing two cultural groups. Continuous associations to 30 of the 1910 Kent-Rosanoff stimulus-words were obtained from a group of students in the University of Lagos, Nigeria. These were compared with the discrete data from U.S. college students in the 1963 Minnesota norms. When the three most popular responses from each group were examined, 42% of them were identical. The use of primary responses revealed, however, 20% equivalence only. The U.S. group emitted more adjective and contrast responses but fewer noun responses than the Nigerian group. Such response-type preferences may reflect basic cultural and personality differences.
30Â citations
TL;DR: This article investigated locus of control differences in male and female Indian and white third-grade children in South Africa, and found that Indian children were significantly more internal than their white counterparts on both the Helplessness and Achievement factors, although no significant differences were yielded on the Luck factor.
Abstract: The present study investigated locus of control differences in male and female Indian and White third-grade children in South Africa. Using the Nowicki-Strickland locus of control scale for children as the dependent variable, a 2 x 2 (Race x Sex) analysis of variance revealed no significant differences on a global locus of control index. However, Indian children were significantly more internal than their White counterparts on both the Helplessness and Achievement factors, although no significant differences were yielded on the Luck factor. In addition, neither significant sex main effects nor any interaction effects emerged on any of the three factors. Differences between the two cultural groups are discussed in terms of their relative positions in South African society, and the possible utility of a multidimensional approach to locus of control in cross-cultural research is evaluated.
TL;DR: The authors found that higher school achievement as measured by general grade point average (GPA) and by specific grades in mathematics, Hungarian language, and literature courses was positively related to an internal locus of control orientation for all children.
Abstract: To test the generality of the results of the children's form of the Nowicki-Strickland Internal-External control scale, it was given to 469 Hungarian children ranging in age from 10 to 14. Internal-external scores of Hungarian children did not differ significantly from those obtained in the American sample. Higher school achievement as measured by general grade point average (GPA) and by specific grades in mathematics, Hungarian language, and literature courses was positively related to an internal locus of control orientation for all children. Finally, higher students' rated level of developmental congruence was significantly related to an internal orientation, but only for females. Results from this two-culture contrast support the conclusion that the relation between locus of control and achievement behaviors are comparable across cultures.
TL;DR: In this article, seven conservation tasks were individually administered to 449 Hausa children between the ages of 5 and 13 years and a 50% rate of conservation responses was achieved on most tests by age 12.
Abstract: To assess the development of concrete operations among the Hausa, seven conservation tasks were individually administered to 449 children between the ages of 5 and 13 years. A 50% rate of conservation responses was achieved on most tests by age 12. Schooled children had significantly higher scores on only a few tasks; schooling did not seem to be a major factor in accelerating the attainment of concrete operations. There were also social class and urbanization effects on several tasks. As a combined test, the Piaget battery seems to be closely related to several intelligence test subtests, particularly those with reasoning components. In addition, the test results of three Piagetian tasks were analyzed to identify the underlying reasoning processes.
TL;DR: The difference between the work values of Western-oriented and tribal-oriented black employees, as well as the relationship between work values and job satisfaction, was examined in a sample of black supervisors in South Africa, who completed a locally derived measure of modernization, the Brayfield-Rothe index of job satisfaction and the Survey of Work Values (Protestant Ethic) as mentioned in this paper.
Abstract: The difference between the work values of Western-oriented and tribal-oriented black employees, as well as the relationship between work values and job satisfaction, was examined in a sample of black supervisors in South Africa, who completed a locally derived measure of modernization, the Brayfield-Rothe index of job satisfaction and the Survey of Work Values (Protestant Ethic). On the basis of their modernization scores and the length of time they had spent in a city or town of "'white" South Africa, the sample was divided into Western and tribal subgroups. The Western subgroup accepted most of the tenets of the Protestant Ethic significantly more than the tribal subgroup. In both subgroups the relation between the Protestant Ethic and job satisfaction was positive. The results are explained in terms of the different cultural backgrounds of the two subgroups.
TL;DR: The authors found that city children were more relativistic in their judgment than both kibbutz children and Israeli Arabs, who were similar in their scores, and attributed the differences in the socialization pattern in the three subcultures.
Abstract: Four hundred fifty-four preadolescents from seventh and eighth grades in three subcultures-city, kibbutz, and Israeli Arabs-were compared on the realistic-relativistic dimension of moral judgment. City children were more relativistic in their judgment than both kibbutz children and Israeli Arabs, who were similar in their scores. The results were explained in light of Wright's theory of moral behavior and attributed to the differences in the socialization pattern in the three subcultures.
TL;DR: For example, the authors found that Blacks show higher own-group choice than Anglos in second and fifth grade children, and that the patterns of ethnic choice were influenced by age and sex of the children and ethnicity of examiner.
Abstract: A critical sociocultural question today is: "Under what experimental and environmental conditions do ethnic subjects select stimuli of their own group?" To assess patterns of ethnic choice, Anglo, Black, and Chicano second- and fifth-grade children were asked to relate 12 statements to ethnic cues presented in a photographic and sociometric modality. After sex and ethnicity of examiners; relative attractiveness of photographs used; and sex, age, and socioeconomic level of subjects were controlled, results indicate that Blacks show higher own-group choice than Anglos. Patterns of ethnic choice were influenced by age and sex of the children and ethnicity of examiner.
TL;DR: In this paper, the hypothesis of interlingual interference was tested by employing the network model of the semantic memory for English monolinguals and Spanish-English bilingual subjects, and two variables were measured: the reaction time to the true-false items, and the semantic judgment.
Abstract: The hypothesis of interlingual interference was tested by employing the network model of the semantic memory. Ninety-three true-false propositions were presented to English monolinguals and Spanish-English bilingual subjects. Two variables were measured: the reaction time to the true-false items, and the semantic judgment. It was found that subjects operating in a monolingual context performed equally well. However, the performance of subjects operating in a dual language context was significantly impaired. Difference in hierarchical organization of the semantic memory for the two languages was an important factor in determining interlingual interference.
TL;DR: In this article, a 50-item "Military Leadership Scale" (MLS) was developed from protocols gathered at the time of application or entry and its correlations with the leadership criteria, available from one year to four years later, were.25,.19, and.22.
Abstract: The 300-item Adjective Check List is proposed as a useful device for cross-cultural research. This study evaluated the ACL as a predictor of leadership ratings in two Italian officer training programs and the U.S. Military Academy at West Point. Ns were 244, 415, and 523. A 50-item `Military Leadership Scale" (MLS) was developed from protocols gathered at the time of application or entry. Its correlations with the leadership criteria, available from one year to four years later, were .25, .19, and .22. High scorers described themselves as conscientious, self-disciplined, and goal-directed. Low scorers described themselves as less well-organized and as having more varied and less socially desirable dispositions. In a sample of 100 Air Force officers, MLS correlated .24 with a composite criterion of performance. For 61 males and 61 females rated on leadership in experimental leaderless group discussions, correlations between ratings and MLS were .39 and .30. Psychodiagnostic implications of the scale includ...
TL;DR: This paper found that Ugandans like the activities slightly more and rated the importance of social contact for participation somewhat higher than Americans, based on the mean ratings, while Ugandans found that social contact was more important in their leisure preferences than other leisure activities.
Abstract: Data from 108 college students in Uganda and 119 students in America showed general similarities in both preferences for and the importance of social contact to 21 leisure activities. Based on the mean ratings, Americans like the activities slightly more and rated the importance of social contact for participation somewhat higher. Correlations between preferences and the importance of social contact suggest that social contact was more important in the leisure preferences of Ugandans. The value of measuring the meaning of leisure as a cultural indicator is discussed. Tentative suggestions are made about the role of social contact in leisure and about differences in leisure between the two countries.
TL;DR: For instance, the authors found that the Hupa retain traditional values such as the primacy of individual goals and group welfare over lineal concerns, focus on the present rather than the past, and mastery over nature rather than harmony with nature, and a struggle to maintain the uniqueness of their cultural identity without forfeiture of their identity as participants in the mainstream culture.
Abstract: To determine the extent to which the Hupa have retained traditional values, 21 Hupa men and women (ages 18-70) were administered the Kluckhohn and Strodtbeck (1961) questionnaire on four value orientations: activity, relational, time, and man-nature. Results were compared with traditional Hupa value orientations inferred from the literature. Current orientations indicated significant preferences for (1) expression of oneself through accomplishment rather than self-actualization, (2) primacy of individual goals and group welfare over lineal concerns, (3) focus on the present rather than the past, and (4) mastery over nature rather than harmony with nature. The most visible change from earlier value orientations was found in time, which shifted from traditional emphasis on future to present. The inconsistency of responses to time items further indicated a struggle to maintain the uniqueness of their cultural identity without forfeiture of their identity as participants in the mainstream culture. It was conc...
TL;DR: A recently developed test of basic Piagetian stage abilities is described, and new data collected in rural Hawaii and in a working-class Chicago suburb are used to defend its validity as mentioned in this paper.
Abstract: A recently developed test of basic Piagetian stage abilities is described, and new data collected in rural Hawaii and in a working-class Chicago suburb are used to defend its validity. The test makes use of familiar test stimuli-blocks of different colors and shapes-which are reasonably salient cross-culturally. The use of (1) identical materials in assessment of all levels of cognitive development and (2) minimal verbal cues of simple construction serve to enhance (a) the internal consistency of the measure in tapping the child's full potential and (b) the measure's practical utility in a cross-cultural testing situation. The subtasks are designed to correspond to a theoretical description of the stages of cognitive development as defined by Piaget. In order to provide validation for the test, some preliminary empirical confirmation of the correspondence between the abilities tapped by the present test and those tapped by standard Piagetian tests is presented. Finally, data from all of the measures are u...
TL;DR: In this paper, grade 3 urban and rural Shona children (N = 258) were tested for pictorial depth interpretation (PDI) and pictorial space comprehension (PSC).
Abstract: Grade 3 urban and rural Shona children (N = 258) were tested for pictorial depth interpretation (PDI) and pictorial space comprehension (PSC). Procedures commonly adopted for pictorial depth tests elicited significantly lower PSC scores than facilitating procedures designed for the group. Outline drawings likewise elicited less PSC (and PDI) than the photographs and line-and-tone drawings. Pictorial space comprehension was more than doubled when optimum materials and procedures were combined. Perceptual training raised PDI and PSC scores significantly, the latter among urban girls in particular. Predictions that cultural factors would result in higher scores from boys and urban children were supported in the case of PSC; PDI as the lower-level skill was more universally available and consequently less affected.
TL;DR: In this article, personal symbols of private love and hate experiences of 48 political militants and recognized artists from six Western nations were used as sources of data to assess the effects of the social environment on the emotional development of two social groups and to monitor distinct psychological characteristics of each group.
Abstract: The focus of this study was to assess the effects of the social environment on the emotional development of two social groups and to monitor distinct psychological characteristics of each group. Personal symbols of private love and hate experiences of 48 political militants and recognized artists from six Western nations were used as sources of data. Statistical analyses yielded significant results indicating that (a) the two groups use different emotional symbols, and (b) there is the possibility the two groups may be viewed as distinct irrespective of the cultural differences of informants within each group.
TL;DR: In this article, the authors observed 19 boys and 20 girls from West Bengal, aged 7-18 months, together with their mothers, in free activity in a standard setting, and found that the boys' exploratory and attachment behaviors showed developmental trends parallel to trends found among same age American children.
Abstract: Nineteen boys and 20 girls from West Bengal, aged 7-18 months, were observed, together with their mothers, in free activity in a standard setting. The boys' exploratory and attachment behaviors showed developmental trends parallel to trends found among same age American children. The girls showed reduced exploratory behavior and a heightened need for physical closeness with the mother; those behaviors became prominent during the second year of the children's lives. Mothers of boys interacted with the son across a distance, and initiated interaction as well as were responsive to him significantly more than did mothers toward a daughter. They also evidenced a distinct pattern of reciprocity with the son, in contrast to a poorly established pattern of reciprocity between mothers and their daughters. The differential maternal attitudes toward boys and girls became marked during the second year of the children's lives. It was suggested that this culturally determined change in maternal attitudes led to an inse...
TL;DR: The changes in reported socialization practices of Rajput mothers of Khalapur, India from 1955 to 1975 are presented in this paper, where a modified version of the socialization interview given to 24 mothers in 1955 was given to 38 mothers from the same families in 1975.
Abstract: The changes in reported socialization practices of Rajput mothers of Khalapur, India from 1955 to 1975 are presented. A modified version of the socialization interview given to 24 mothers in 1955 was given to 38 mothers from the same families in 1975. During the intervening 20 years, improved grains have resulted in greatly increased prosperity in Khalapur, houses have been expanded to include private rooms for most couples, daughters-in-law are now usually educated, while mothers-in-law are typically illiterate. The effect of these changes has been to increase the power status of daughters-in-law, and decrease both the power of mothers-in-law and the deference accorded to them by their sons' wives. As a result of these alterations in status, mothers now have more direct control over the care and discipline of their children. Mothers in the 1975 sample train their children for greater responsibility and assertiveness, and allow them to cry more and are more severe in dealing with boys than were the mother...
TL;DR: In this article, four groups of 30 women from South Africa placed doll pairs to represent the 8 relationships obtained by pairing each of young wife and young husband with each of wife's mother, wife's father, husband's mother and husband's father.
Abstract: Four groups of 30 women from South Africa placed doll pairs to represent the 8 relationships obtained by pairing each of young wife and young husband with each of wife's mother, wife's father, husband's mother, and husband's father. The groups were: (1) whites, (2) Xhosa nurses, urban born, (3) urban born poorly educated Xhosas, and (4) traditionalist rural Xhosas. Interdoll distances were larger in the rural traditionalist group than in the other groups. The rural traditionalist group used very large distance for pairings involving the opposite-sex parent-in-law. All Xhosa groups tended to put the older generation figure in a more direct orientation than the younger. Results are discussed in terms of traditional Xhosa means of expressing respect through avoidance of proximity and eye-contact.
TL;DR: In this article, a community survey involving 771 adult respondents in an urban and a rural area in Western Nigeria was under-taken and the index for level of social functioning was derived on the basis of recognized Yoruba normative patterns.
Abstract: Despite the consensual adherence to a magico-mythical orientation in Africa, it was hypothesized that a deeper fear of bewitchment is likely to exist among persons with low as opposed to those who enjoy high levels of social functioning. A community survey involving 771 adult respondents in an urban and a rural area in Western Nigeria was under-taken. Socioeconomic background data and indices of the social functioning level of the respondents were collected. The index for level of social functioning was derived on the basis of recognized Yoruba normative patterns. Stepwise regression analysis was used to investigate the predictive factors of the fear of bewitchment. A deeper fear of bewitchment appears to exist in the urban but not in the rural subgroup. Some of the items which constitute the social functioning index also appear to predict the fear of bewitchment.
TL;DR: This article found that Spanish-speaking mothers of girls expressed significantly more Magic expectations than the Anglos and the English-speaking Mexican-Americans (EMAs); the Blacks and the EMAs expressed more than the anglos.
Abstract: Widespread use of supplemental vitamins continues in the absence of clear scientific evidence of efficacy. Observations in a variety of pediatric health settings suggest that their use may be based on expectations rooted in a variety of culturally based attitudes and beliefs. Mothers of well babies in four ethnic groups answered questionnaires, indicating their expectations of vitamin efficacy. We called those expectations aligned with organized Western medicine "Scientific"; those with less apparent basis in fact were termed "Magic." Black mothers expressed more Scientific responses than EMAs and Anglos, but the effects were contributed solely by data from mothers of girls. Spanish-speaking mothers of girls expressed significantly more Magic expectations than the Anglos and the English-speaking Mexican-Americans (EMAs); the Blacks and the EMAs expressed more than the Anglos. Mothers of boys showed no interethnic differences. Results reflect a strong interaction between ethnicity and sex of child.
TL;DR: In this paper, two samples of Nigerian (Hausa) children were given two tests of egocentrism: one test involved the identification of right and left hands; the second test involved visual perspective.
Abstract: Two samples of Nigerian (Hausa) children were given two tests of egocentrism. One test involved the identification of right and left hands; the second test involved visual perspective. Correct identification of the child's own hands occurred by the age of six years, but correct identification of the investigator's hands was much later than that reported previously. Understanding of differences in visual perspective was achieved by 75% of the eight- to nine-year-old children. The correlation between the two tests was only moderate (r = .30).
TL;DR: This paper found that the younger children in both cultures interpreted the contradictory messages more negatively than the older children, and a culture effect was noted, such that the Mexican children viewed the contradictory speech significantly more negative than did their Canadian counterparts.
Abstract: Recordings were made of Canadian and Mexican actresses reciting contradictory messages in their respective languages (i.e., English and Spanish). The speech samples were contradictory in that the tone of voice was incongruent with the words spoken. When these contradictory communications were played to Canadian and Mexican children aged 7, 9, and 11, it was found that there was a clear age effect. That is, the younger children in both cultures interpreted the contradictory messages more negatively than the older children. Further, a culture effect was noted, such that the Mexican children viewed the contradictory speech significantly more negatively than did their Canadian counter-parts.