Showing papers in "Journal of Marriage and Family in 1983"

Measuring marital quality, A critical look at the dependent variable

Abstract: This paper critically examines the operationalization of marital quality indices used as dependent variables. First, it looks at the functioning and construction of marital quality variables. In particular, Spanier's Dyadic Adjustment Scale is used to illustrate the arguments. Second, it presents both semantic and empirical criteria to judge the development of a marital quality index. Finally, it presents a Quality Marriage Index (QMI) based on the introduced criteria. This index was constructed using data from 430 people across four states. Several advantages of the QMI over more traditional measures are shown in terms of how co variates relate to the index.

Stability and Change in Marriage across the Transition to Parenthood.

Abstract: In order to assess marital change in response to the birth of a first-born or later-born infant, 72 volunteer couples were studied longitudinally from the last trimester of pregnancy through the ninth postpartum month. Joint couple interviews; individual spousal questionnaires; and naturalistic, in-home, behavioral observations were used. Analyses of mean scores revealed modest yet highly reliable changes in marital adjustment (as assessed by the Dyadic Adjustment Scale), marital functioning (joint leisure activities, perception of relationship as a romance, friendship, and partnership), and observed marital interaction. Cross-time correlational analyses revealed that, despite these changes in central tendencies, spouses and couples that initially scored high on various measures tended to do so across the period studied. Considered together, a dual developmentalfocus upon both individual and group change indicates that in some respects the addition of a first-born or later-born infant has a negative impact on the marital relationship, whereas in other respects (i.e., individual differences) it exerts relatively little impact.

The decision to leave an abusive relationship: Economic dependence and psychological commitment.

Abstract: Past research and theory suggest that a battered woman's economic dependence on her assailant, and her commitment to "saving" the relationship, are important factors in the decision to leave her partner. However, clear empirical evidence for these relationships is lacking. The present study examined these two factors, using both objective and subjective measures. Results indicated that both economic dependence and commitment were significantly, and independently, related to decisions to leave an abusive relationship. Furthermore, these results held for both objective and subjective measures, though more strongly for the latter.

Parental Caregiving by Adult Children.

Abstract: Recent research in social gerontology has highlighted the importance of the family, particularly adult daughters, as caregivers for the impaired and chronically ill communitybased elderly. This paper explores the impact of employment and competing familial responsibilities on the level of assistance provided to elderly parents by adult children. Data were collected through personal interviews with a probability sample of noninstitutionalized elderly persons (N = 753) and their informal helpers (N = 502). Analysis is restricted to informal helpers who are sons or daughters of the older respondent. Hours of assistance varied in response to the level of parental impairment. The presence of the older parent's spouse was negatively related to hours of help. Competing demands on the helpers' time, particularly marital status, had a significant impact, with married children providing less help. Being employed significantly decreased the hours of assistance provided by sons but did not have a significant impact on the hours of assistance provided by daughters.

Perceived Marital Quality and Family Life-Cycle Categories: A Further Analysis.

Abstract: Three research questions regarding family life-cycle categories were explored: (a) the power of family life-cycle categories to predict marital quality, (b) the nature of the trend (curve) of marital quality over the family life cycle, and (c) whether the relationship between perceived marital quality and family life-cycle categories is an artifact of marital conventionalization. The results, consistent with previous investigations, indicated that family life cycle and the total number of children were significant predictors of marital quality; but the proportion of variance accounted for was slight. In contrast to previous investigations, however, marital quality was shown to be accounted for best by a statistically significant curvilinear, U-shaped trend over the family life cycle. Finally, marital conventionalization was not found to be responsible for reports of improved marital quality at later stages of the family life cycle. The implications of these and previous findings are discussed.

Using Couple Data as a Methodological Tool: The Case of Marital Violence.

Abstract: The paper demonstrates the use of couple data as a methodological tool. Using Straus's Conflict Tactics Scale as an example, it is shown that couple data may be used for the evaluation of scale items and for the assessment of the validity of frequency estimates of violence and its relationship with other variables. The results provide clear evidence that aggregate husband-wife data cannot substitute for couple data.

Sources of Satisfaction and Conflict in Long-Term Relationships.

Abstract: In regard to nine relationships of 52 subjects, 15 sources of satisfaction and 15 sources of conflict were rated. Three clear satisfaction factors emerged, and there were two conflict factors. There was some evidence for universal sources ofsatisfaction-the shared-interests factor, although this was low for neighbors. Spouse was in a class by itself, with the highest scores on all three satisfaction and both conflict factors. The ratio of conflict to satisfaction was greater for all the less voluntary relationships and for the lower status relationship. A number of age and sex differences appeared. The implications for exchange theory are discussed.

Adult children's attachment and helping behavior to elderly parents: A path model.

Abstract: Based on attachment theory, a path model was constructed in which adult children 'sfeelings of attachment lead to their attachment behaviors and in turn to their present helping behaviors and commitment to provide future help Also included in the model were filial obligation, dependency, interpersonal conflict, and negative feelings resulting from helping behaviors Field survey data were obtained from 148 adult children with living elderly mothers Results indicated that present helping behaviors, attachment behaviors, and feelings of attachment had the strongest influence on commitment to provide future help Filial obligation had an indirect influence mediated by attachment behaviors

Intimacy and Intergenerational Aid and Contact among Mothers and Daughters.

Abstract: We address the assumption that aid, contact, and intimacy are components of some underlying dyadic construct by examining two mother-daughter relationships-student women and their mothers (132 pairs) and middle-aged women and their mothers (107 pairs). Both partners are respondents in each case. We distinguish between proximal aid and distal aid, include all modes of contact, and measure intimacy as a multidimensional construct. Aid and contact collectively do not account for more than 11% of the variance in reports of intimacy. With small but consistent associations across relationship reports, proximal aid to mother predicts both mother's and daughter's reports of intimacy in both generational pairs. In the younger but not the older pairs, the connection between intimacy and contact by visiting and telephoning is conditional on geographic distance. Amount of contact is related negatively to mothers' reported intimacy in the younger relationship and, when proximal aid to mother is controlled, to both mothers' and daughters' reported intimacy in the older relationship. This effect contradicts the assumption of a positive relationship between contact and intimacy. In both mother-daughter relationships, distal aid to mother, aid in general from mother to daughter, letter writing, and child care are not related to intimacy. It is not reasonable, therefore, to infer intimacy from aid and contact. The study suggests the potential of distinguishing between discretionary and obligatory intergenerational interaction.

Characteristics of Middle-Aged Daughters and Help to Their Elderly Mothers.

Abstract: This paper examines the relationships between selected characteristics of a sample of middle-aged daughters (N = 161) and the nature and amount of help that they provided to their elderly mothers. Univariate analysis of variance and regression analyses indicated that the daughters' characteristic-their ages, marital status, work/nonwork status, and living arrangements (whether daughters and mothers share households or live separately)--were related significantly to the amount of help they provided. Shared households and older ages of the daughter were associated with more care giving, while both being married and being employed "'pulled" slightly from the amount of help given. The findings illuminate the situations of "women in the middle"-that is, middle-aged women involved in parent care-and suggest social-policy directions and further research needs.

Social Determinants of Age at First Birth.

Abstract: A womans 1st birth is 1 of the most significant events in her life. It signifies her taking on the roles and responsibilities of a mother often to the exclusion of further education and career building roles. The earlier these roles and responsibilities are undertaken the less likely are alternatives to be taken and the greater is the expected quantity and pace of subsequent childbearing. Consequently this paper explores the social determinants of the timing of the 1st birth. A model is developed and tested in which a number of social factors are hypothesized to affect age at 1st birth. Age at 1st birth is allowed to have a reciprocal effect on education; thus the model is nonrecursive. Education at marriage is the most important predictor of age at 1st birth and the relationship is positive. Although a few social determinants do have a direct effect on age at 1st birth (such as race religion and smoking at young ages) most determinants affect age at 1st birth through education. (authors modified)

Split Household, Small Producer and Dual Wage Earner: An Analysis of Chinese-American Family Strategies.

Abstract: In contrast to the institutional approaches frequently used in studies of black and Hispanic family life, research on the Chinese-American family has relied almost exclusively on cultural explanations. The latter perspective emphasizes the continuity of Chinese-American family patterns over time, portraying them as basically static. Instead, using an institutional framework, this study emphasizes the changing structure of Chinese-American families resulting from the interplay between shifting institutional constraints and the efforts of Chinese Americans to maintain family life in the face of these restrictions. Historical analysis reveals three distinct immigrant family types which emerged in different periods in response to particular political and economic conditions: split household, small producer, and dual-wage worker. The existence of these distinct types suggests that characteristics often interpreted as products of Chinese culture actually represent strategies for dealing with conditions of life in the United States.

Adolescents' Daily Experience with Family and Friends: Contrasting Opportunity Systems.

Abstract: This paper compares adolescents' experience in daily interactions with family and friends. A stratified random sample of 75 high school students provided self-reports at random times during their regular lives, including 1,236 occasions in these two primary social contexts. When with their friends, these adolescents reported a situation more conducive to enjoyment than that occurring with their families: they felt more open and free, feedback was positive, and talk was joking. However, those adolescents who spent more time with friends than with family showed poorer school performance and wider mood variability. The findings suggest that friendship interactions are experienced as positive feedback systems, having a high potential for fluid interchange but also lower homeostasis and a propensity to get out of control. In comparison, adolescents' family interactions appear more like negative feedback systems, being constrained by family maintenance requirements and goals of formal socialization.

Mothers and Mothers-in-Law.

Abstract: This study indicates how a shift in the structure of kinship networks can create changes in both the content and valence of kinship relationships. The study compares the motherdaughter and the mother-in-law/daughter-in-law relationships, and the shift in their kin network consists of the birth of the daughter(-in-law)'s child. Findings from an exploratory research project, based on family case studies, suggest that orientation toward the child changes these relationships in different ways along three dimensions: interactive involvement, interpersonal boundaries, and relational strain. The orientation around the child appears to clarify the interpersonal boundaries between daughter and mother by shifting the mother's maternal role onto the daughter's child. But the birth of the child creates greater ambiguity in the quasi-kin, quasi-maternal relationship between mothers-in-law and daughters-in-law. Thus, the child seems to bring more relational strain to the in-law relationship and less strain to the mother-daughter bond.

Social Support and Adaptation to Widowhood

Abstract: This study examined the effects of social support on the psychological well-being of 245 women who had been widowed for less than three years. The survey results indicate that the role of such support is important but complex. Whether social support is helpful, harmful, or inconsequential to widows' psychological well-being seems to depend on such factors as where the widows are in the adjustment process, the type of support given, and its source. While a life crisis, such as death of one's spouse, is traumatic for almost everyone experiencing it, it remains unclear why some widowed people experience a more difficult adjustment process than do others. This study addresses the issue of differential adjustment to the death of a husband. The study of human reactions to bereavement is not new; however, much of the previous work in this area has been grounded in theoretical frameworks that emphasize the instinctual, biological facets of the individual's grief reactions and neglect the social context of the adjustment process (cf. Bowlby, 1961, 1980; Freud, 1917; Klein, 1940; Lindemann, 1944). Consequently, the potential importance of social relationships existing between the bereaved individual and significant others has tended to be overlooked in this area of inquiry. The present study was concerned with the discovery of the ways in which support from significant others tends to enhance or lessen the

Adult Daughters' Relationships with Their Mothers.

Abstract: Using a three-item index of "maternal rapport," perceived relationships to mothers of 171 women ages 35-55 were examined, for the sample as a whole and for six subgroups who differed in their role patterns. Overall, relationships were seen as rewarding, particularly by women who were not themselves mothers. Age of daughter was not significantly related to maternal rapport scores. Mother's health was significantly correlated with maternal rapport scores; mother's marital status (widowed vs. currently married) was not. Psychological well-being, indexed by two factor scores-sense of mastery and pleasure-was significantly correlated with maternal rapport; the relationships were stronger for women who were not mothers themselves. Implications of the findings for understanding the gratifications adult women experience in the role of daughter are discussed.

Self-Esteem and Family Cohesion: The Child's Perspective and Adjustment.

Abstract: This study investigated the relationship between children's self-esteem and their perceptions of family cohesion. Closeness to the family was identified in terms offive family types (oneand two-parent cohesive, divided, parent coalition and isolated child). Questionnaires assessing children's self-esteem (Coopersmith, 1967; Piers and Harris, 1969) and perceptions of family happiness and support were administered to 467 fifthand sixthgrade children. Teachers' knowledge offamily relationships was also measured. The results indicated that children from different family types experienced varying degrees of closeness and support. Furthermore, those children reporting little family support tended to score low levels on self-esteem. The importance of examining the parent-child relationships as well as parental interactions in studies of the effects of divorce on children is discussed.

Determinants of Spousal Interaction: Marital Structure or Marital Happiness.

Abstract: This paper examines factors associated with marital interaction, particularly work roles, marital structure, and marital happiness. Evidence from a nationwide probability sample of 2034 men and women suggests that heavy work involvement of husbands as well as wives, number of children, and a traditional division of household labor all reduce the proportion of time couples spend in joint activity. The determinants of interaction are found to differ significantly by racial/ethnic group. A major finding of this paper is the importance of marital happiness as a determinant of interaction. Using two-stage leastsquares analysis, the paper examines the nonrecursive relationship between interaction and happiness and concludes that previous research has overestimated the effect of interaction on marital happiness.

The Significance of Ethnic and Cultural Differences in Child Maltreatment.

Abstract: This paper explores the meaning and significance of cultural and ethnic influences on the incidence and forms of child maltreatment. Taking a cross-cultural and sociobiological perspective, the paper addresses three issues. First, are there differences in the incidence and form of child maltreatment that are not accounted for by social class? Second, what is the role of social change in producing cultureand ethnicity-related differences in child maltreatment? Third, how can research and intervention efforts respond to cultural and ethnic factors by counteracting group vulnerabilities and capitalizing on group strengths?

The End of Marriage and Acceptance of Marital Termination.

Abstract: The circumstances surrounding the termination of marriage are examined in relation to the aftermath of marital separation. Social exchange theory provides a framework for representing the end of marriage. Data were collected from a nonprobability sample of 205 individuals in central Pennsylvania, who were first interviewed in depth soon after their final separation. Measures are developed to assess the attractions in marriage, external pressures to remain married, alternative attractions to the marriage, and acceptance of marital termination. Multiple regression analysis demonstrates that 41 % of the variance in acceptance of marital termination can be explained by marital history variables. Several bivariate and multivariate hypotheses are tested, providing insight into the similarities and differences between males and females in postmarital adjustment. The paper concludes with a descriptive analysis of several dimensions of the process of marital dissolution and its aftermath.

Assessment of Dysfunctional Interaction Patterns in Couples.

Abstract: Interaction patterns are repetitious communication sequences between members of a couple. When these patterns are dysfunctional, they are often the focus of clinical intervention. Yet pattern descriptions, while occurring frequently in the clinical literature, tend to be anecdotal and unsystematically studied. A questionnaire containing descriptions of 12 common interaction patterns was independently administered to both members of 55 undergraduate couples. Agreement on pattern occurrence between couples was low but significantly greater than chance. Three of the interaction patterns were signficantly related to standard measures of relationship satisfaction. Furthermore, evidence indicated the superiority of the pattern questionnaire over an alternate measurement instrument, an adjective checklist. The potential usefulness of this questionnaire in clinical assessment, intervention, and research is discussed.

Personal and Family Adjustment in Later Life.

Abstract: Most prior research on relationships of older parents and adult children, as well as their impact on the lives of the elderly, has examined quantitative variables such as frequency of interaction or residential proximity. The primary purpose of this study was to develop and test a theoretical model of qualitative dimensions in these relationships. Furthermore, the impact of these dimensions on the personal and family adjustment of the aged member was assessed. Data were collected from interviews with 171 parents 65 years or older, using a randomized multistage compact design, and from 143 mailed questionnaires returned by adult children. A path analysis procedure was performed on the data, showing the model to account for 36.4% of the total variance. The strongest predictor of the dependent variable, the psychological well-being of older parents, was health. The second strongest predictor was quality of the relationship. Moving backward in the recursive model, affection and communication positively influenced the quality of the relationship, filial responsibility held by the child had a positive impact on affection and communication, and filial expectations by the parent had a negative influence on communication. Several additional predictor variables representing the condition and life circumstances of aged parents indicated some moderate interrelationships and indirect effects on the parent-child interaction and psychological well-being of aged parents. Based on the results of the original model, a reconceptualized model is proposed to provide direction for future study of these intergenerational family relationships.

Age at Marriage, Role Enactment, Role Consensus, and Marital Satisfaction.

Abstract: This paper uses quality of role enactment (role performance) and role consensus between spouses to examine the relationship between age at marriage and marital satisfaction. The authors hypothesize that age at marriage positively affects 1) the quality of self role enactment 2) the quality of spouses role enactment and 3) marital role consensus between spouses; that 4) role consensus positively affects the quality of the spouses role enactment; and that 5) the selfrole enactment 6) the spouses role enactment and 7) role censensus positively affect marital satisfaction. Three common family roles--provider child socialization and therapeutic roles--are particularly important for marital satisfaction. 704 couples from California Oregon Washington and Utah in their first marriage provide data in a 1976 survey. When compared to US census data the sample represents a broad cross section in terms of age educationoccupation and income with an overrepresentation of college-educated persons in professional occupations. Ages are grouped as 13-17 19-19 and 20 or more. Multiple regression analysis does not support the first three hypotheses but substantiates hypotheses 4-7: selfrole enactment has small relationship with marital satisfaction quality of spouses role enactment positively effects marital satisfaction and role consensus has a strong association with marital satisfaction explaining 44% and 35% of the variance in marital satisfaction of wives and husbands respectively. This study finds no evidence that early marriers have less role consensus or lower quality role enactment than later marriers; but the sample does not include early marriers who are already divorced. Longitudinal studies must follow early marriers to adequately test hypotheses on marriage age.