Showing papers in "Journal of Psychology and Theology in 2011"

International Journal for the Psychology of Religion

Abstract: Previous research has established how childhood attachment extends into adult romantic attachment and attachment to God. Other research has shown that individuals' styles of attachment to God are differentially associated with three types of spiritual coping methods, self-directing, deferring, and collaborative. Hernandez, Salerno, & Bottoms (2010) sought to extend this body of research by investigating the relationship between God attachment, spiritual coping, and alcohol use. A "novel link" was established between God attachment and alcohol use (p. 106). Research on spiritual coping methods has identified three spiritual coping styles associated with people's relational state with God: self-directing, a self-reliant coping and problem-solving style that works independently of God; deferring, where the responsibility of problem-solving rests on God alone; and collaborative, a problem-solving style that views God and person as cooperative partners in coping and problem-solving. Moreover, a person's God attachment has been differentially associated with these coping methods. Hernandez, Salerno, & Bottoms (2010) sought to extend research on attachment and coping by being the first to study "the effects of God attachment and spiritual coping on alcohol use" (p. 99). They hypothesized that spiritual coping styles would mediate the effect of God attachment on alcohol use. Specifically, they predicted that insecure God attachment style, compared to secure God attachment style, would use "collaborative and deferring style coping styles less and self-directing coping style more," which would then result in increased alcohol use (p. 100). For the study, 429 undergraduate Introductory Psychology students from the University of Illinois at Chicago participated for course credit. The sample's (60% female) religious orientation was 46% Catholic, 43% Christian, 6% Hindu, 3% Muslim, 2% Jewish, 0.4% Greek Orthodox, and 0.4% Sikh. Five measures were utilized to test their hypotheses. The Attachment to God Scale was used to measure participants' "perceived emotional attachment to God" (p. 101). The Religious Problem-Solving Scale was used to measure participants' "religious problem solving tendencies," broken down into three spiritual coping styles: self-directing, deferring, and collaborative (p. 101). The Alcohol-Related Coping Scale was used to measure participants' "social, coping, and enhancement motives for drinking alcohol" (p. 101). The Alcohol Frequency Scale was used to measure participants' general alcohol use. Finally, participants' religious characteristics, such as religious orientation and level of religious involvement, were measured. To test the data, the researchers first implemented a series of one-way between-subjects ANOVA with God attachment style as the independent variable and spiritual coping styles, alcohol-related coping, and general alcohol use as dependent variables. This was followed by mediation analyses to test if the "effect of God attachment on alcohol use and alcohol coping was mediated by spiritual coping styles" (p. 102). Related to spiritual coping, there was a significant main effect of God attachment on spiritual coping, F(2,226) = 26.88, p

Psychology of Religion and Spirituality

Abstract: Numerous studies on prayer have demonstrated the benefits of prayer on relationships, physical and mental health, and overall well-being Given the practical benefits of prayer, understanding how laypersons conceive of prayer could supply valuable information to practicing clinicians and researchers seeking to establish a more nuanced understanding on what qualities of prayer contribute to its benefits Utilizing a prototype approach, this study sought to understand how laypersons perceive the conceptual elements of prayer by identifying central and peripheral characteristics associated with prayer To effectively assess laypersons' perspectives on the concept of prayer, the researchers utilized a prototype approach to determine what features (eg thanking God, listening, comfort) are most commonly attributed to the concept of prayer The researchers conducted four studies that built on one another The participants in the four studies (Study 1: N = 73; Study 2: N = 57; Study 3: N = 245; Study 4: N = 48) were all undergraduate students from a large, public university in the Southeastern United States The median age of the samples was 19, and approximately 78% of the samples were female In Study 1, participants were asked to generate a list of characteristics and attributes they "think of when they think of the word prayer" (p 57) The list of all features generated by the participants were compiled, organized, and distilled into attribute categories of prayer Three research assistants were assigned to code the attributes in such a way to maintain unique characteristics associated with prayer, while eliminating redundant words or phrases with similar meanings The coding procedure extracted 232 prayer characteristics, of which 158 were eliminated due to being listed by two or less participants, leaving 74 prayer attributes Next, Study 2 presented the previously gathered prayer attributes to participants and asked them to rate the attributes on their centrality to prayer (ie how important each attribute is related to the concept of prayer) Participants rated the attributes centrality to prayer on an 8-point scale (1 = least central to 8 = most central) The participants also used an 8-point scale to rate how positive or negative an attribute was (1 = very negative to 8 = very positive) The mean centrality ratings were computed using descriptive statistics and listed in order of strength of centrality Some examples of the attributes with the highest centrality include God, Can be done at anytime, and Thanking God Additionally, the prayer attributes were generally rated positively (M = 554, SD =71), with 81% of the attributes receiving an average rating of 5 (out of 8) Some examples of highly positive items include, God, family, and love Study 3 assessed whether "participants perceived behaviors described in a scenario as better characterizing prayer when central, as opposed to peripheral, [attributes] were used in the description" (p …

“If I Tell others about my Anger toward God, How will They Respond?” Predictors, Associated Behaviors, and Outcomes in an Adult Sample:

Abstract: When people experience anger or other negative feelings toward God, do they admit these emotions to others? Participants in an internet survey (n = 471; mean age 41.7) described an incident involvi...

The Effects of a Manualized Group-Psychotherapy Intervention on Client God Images and Attachment to God: A Pilot Study:

Abstract: The goal of this pilot study was to examine the effects of an 8-week, manualized, outpatient group-psychotherapy intervention on client god images and attachment to God Participants were 26 adults

Community Psychology and Liberation Theologies: Commonalities, Collaboration, Dilemmas:

Abstract: Community psychology and liberation theologies share an emphasis on personal and social transformation through a process of liberation. Emerging in the 1960s in the climate of social change movemen...

Attachment to God: Differentiating the Contributions of Fathers and Mothers Using the Experiences in Parental Relationships Scale:

Abstract: Research on attachment to God has suggested that relationships with primary caregivers are reenacted in the type of attachment relationship experienced with God. However, this research is limited b...

Community, Spiritual Traditions, and Disasters in Collective Societies:

Abstract: This article posits a deeply contextual and communal therapy as the best path to a victim's reconstruction of a sense of ‘home.’ The authors take seriously the recent call of Zhang Kan, chairperson...

Exploring Spiritual Formation in the Christian Academy: The Dialects of Church, Culture, and the Larger Integrative Task

Abstract: The university in general, and the Christian university in particular, are contexts of radical change. Traditional university students are growing physically, emotionally, spiritually, and intellec...

From Prayer Activities to Receptive Prayer: Godly Love and the Knowledge that Surpasses Understanding

Abstract: Research on prayer, even when using measures beyond simple prayer frequency to create typologies, has ignored the dynamic relationship between God as a "divine other" in interaction with the pray-er. Using statistics from surveys on prayer as a backdrop, qualitative accounts that demonstrate the relational nature of prayer are explored through the lenses of the Godly love model. Based on data collected as part of the Flame of Love project, prayer is conceptualized as integrating active and receptive streams, with tributaries of prophetic and mystical prayer experiences. Taken together these dimensions of prayer play an important role in describing what the Apostle Paul calls "knowing the love that surpasses understanding" and are confirmed by multivariate analysis of new survey data. Although active prayer has received much scholarly attention, our findings suggest that a closer look at the receptive forms would provide a more complete picture of what people actually do when they pray. For this reason I kneel before the Father, from whom his whole family in heaven and on earth derives its name. I pray that out of his glorious riches he may strengthen you with power through his Spirit in your inner being, so that Christ may dwell in your hearts through faith. And I pray that you, being rooted and established in love, may have power, together with all the saints, to grasp how wide and long and high and deep is the love of Christ, and to know this love that surpasses knowledge--that you may be filled to the measure of all the fullness of God (Ephes. 3:14-19, NIV). Despite the plethora of theological and philosophical articles and books on love, the topic has failed to capture the imagination of most social scientists. The brilliant pioneering work of sociologist Pitirim Sorokin (1954/2002) in the 1950s that explored the power of love in moral transformation was overshadowed at the time by positivistic empiricism that was regarded as the key to "real" science. Even after positivism lost its strong hold on American sociology and new social philosophies (including social constructionism and post-modernism) opened the door for taking seriously non-material factors in human behavior, love remains a largely forgotten topic. It is only within the past decade that a new reprint of Sorokin's work on love was made available, bringing with it a renewed interest in this important but complex topic. The interdisciplinary Flame of Love Project in which this article is grounded is one important example of a concerted effort to study self-giving love, especially as it is related to God's unlimited love. (1) Prayer also has been subject to a similar pattern of neglect and seeming indifference in social science research. Little progress has been made in unpacking a practice that psychologists Meadow and Kahoe (1984, p.120) once dismissed as "remain(ing) outside the domain of science," and sociologist Ian Robertson (1981) used to describe social deviance, stances that are still widely held. Fueled by conflicting and inconclusive results from clinical studies of healing prayer, (2) many scholars continue to assume that prayer cannot be researched or that it is simply an illustration of irrational behavior. Although survey data collected over six decades has consistently shown that nearly nine out of ten Americans engage in prayer, little is known beyond these reported frequencies about what people actually do when they pray. (3) Even less is known about what people may experience when they pray or how prayer and its attendant experiences affect their lives. Inspired by Paul's prayer for the Ephesians in the epigraph of this paper and made possible through a John Templeton Foundation funded interdisciplinary four-year project on The Flame of Love (FOL), these two widely neglected topics-namely, prayer and love-are here brought together for discussion. Our guiding thesis explores the relationship between divine love and prayer, considering the effects of reported divine-human encounters on human behavior and attitudes. …

Evangelical Christian Students and the Path to Self-Authorship

Abstract: This narrative study adopts the lens and language of Baxter Magolda's self-authorship framework to explore the faith development of four evangelical Christian students from their first year of coll...

Resolving anger toward God : lament as an avenue toward attachment

Abstract: Psychologists have mostly overlooked the topic of anger toward God. The current study tested an intervention based on the biblical psalms of lament, consisting of 20 devotional readings and weekly experiential assignments, delivered electronically over a four-week period. A total of 192 college students at Christian institutions across the United States completed the study, and were randomly assigned to the experimental condition, an attention control condition, or a no-contact condition. The expected findings--that the experimental intervention would cause decreased feelings of anger and complaint toward God, as well as increased intimacy with God over time--were not confirmed. However, those participants who reported maximum compliance with the intervention showed increased ratings on Communion with God. Implications are discussed. 'I love God." Countless believers throughout time have uttered this phrase. But what about the other side of human emotions? What about anger or frustration toward God? Anger toward the divine is nothing new, though it may remain a taboo subject among certain religious groups. Anger, confusion, disillusionment, and frustration with God have affected numerous people throughout centuries. Within the Old Testament, the Book of Psalms is full of honest discourse with God that reflects the gamut of emotions. For example, recorded as the 13th Psalm, we find the following words of angst and desperation (Book of Psalms, NIV, 2000): "How long, O LORD? Will you forget me forever? How long will you hide your face from me? How long must I wrestle with my thoughts and every day have sorrow in my heart?" Relationship with the divine is a topic that has been long explored, both by theologians and social scientists. However, the topic of anger and disappointment toward God, though valued within religious literature, has been mostly neglected within psychological research until recently. A number of articles pioneering the subject have now emerged (e.g., Exline & Martin, 2005; Wood, Worthington, Exline, Yali, Aten & McMinn, 2010). Anger toward God is certainly not an uncommon phenomenon. A recent study examined the prevalence of anger toward God in a large national sample revealing that 62% of Americans sometimes experience anger toward God, while 2.5% reported that they are often angry with God (Exline, Park, Smyth, & Carey, 2011). According to this data, anger toward God is a relevant topic affecting a majority of Americans at some time during their lives, while a minority of individuals experience anger toward God on a frequent or persistent basis. Beyond being a widespread phenomena, Exline et al. (2011) concluded that anger toward God is measurable within a variety of contexts and populations. Relevance of Anger toward God To grasp the importance of anger toward God, it is helpful to consider the broader phenomenon of religious struggle and coping. When people are faced with stressful life events or crises, they often turn to religion as a resource for coping. In fact, studies have shown that a majority of Americans employ religious coping during difficult times (Schotten-bauer, Klimes-Dougan, Rodriguez, Arnkoff, Glass, et al., 2006). Religious coping is multidimensional; it refers to the vast array of ways that people think, feel, and behave regarding their religious beliefs following a stressful event (Pargament, Smith, Koenig, & Perez, 1998). Many methods of religious coping have been identified and categorized; for example, the terms positive and negative religious coping have been coined, referring to patterns of religious coping that have been associated with either positive health benefits or health risks (Zinnbauer, & Pargament, 2005). Four broad categories of religious coping have been defined as: 1) passively deferring control of life to God, 2) self-directing, seeking control through personal initiative rather than through God, 3) pleading in order to work through God via petitioning, and 4) collaborative, partnering with God in problem-solving (Pargament, 1997). …

Biblical Foundationalism and Religious Reflection: Polarization of Faith and Intellect Oriented Epistemologies within a Christian Ideological Surround:

Abstract: Among other things, the Ideological Surround Model (ISM) argues that greater objectivity can be achieved through an empiricism that brings emic religious and etic social scientific perspectives int...

Integrative Perspectives on Human Flourishing: The Imago Dei and Positive Psychology:

Abstract: The field of psychology in general, and clinical psychology in particular, has historically focused on the things that go wrong in human behavior and functioning. Similarly, evangelical theology ha...

Forgiveness and Attachment: A Link That Survives the Grave?

Abstract: The current project consists of two studies assessing the relationship between two attachment dimensions (anxiety and avoidance) and forgiveness in the context of bereavement. Using these two dimensions, the authors explore whether or not general attachment style and attachment to a deceased person in particular predict the degree to which one will forgive that individual. While most previous studies of extending forgiveness to living individuals suggest attachment anxiety is a more robust predictor of forgiveness, the current studies point to attachment avoidance as a more reliable predictor. The authors consider developmental and cultural factors in explaining the results and note implications for pastors and therapists. Over the past 20 years, psychologists have spent much effort discussing both forgiveness and attachment; occasionally, the links between the two have been explored as well. In the current project, we seek to expand our understanding of the correlation between these two variables, in particular among those who are bereaved. Despite the increased interest in forgiveness, psychologists have paid little attention to forgiving deceased individuals, even though those who have lost a loved one routinely report anger as part of their bereavement process (Maciejewski, Zhang, Block, & Prigerson, 2007). Anger has also been linked with unhealthy forms of grieving (Parkes, 2006; Prigerson et al., 2009). Considering the possibility that DSM-5 (American Psychiatric Association, anticipated publication date in May 2013) may include a new grief-related disorder (Prigerson et al., 2009), counselors and psychologists should be attending to specific predictors of adaption to loss and strategies to help those who may receive the new diagnosis. Given their links with mental health, attachment and forgiveness are probably among the variables that should be considered. In addition, because pastors are often involved in supporting bereaved, understanding which variables predict bereavement outcome can be useful for their service in the church. In short, the current studies provide evidence to answer the question of how various aspects of attachment correlate with various aspects of forgiveness when the offender is deceased. We now turn to defining the facets of these concepts and what research to date shows about their relationship. CONSTRICTS UNDER STUDY AND PRIOR RESEARCH Scholars of forgiveness have offered slightly differing definitions of the concept. In this project, we rely on work by Enright (e.g., Enright & Fitzgibbons, 2000; Knutson, Enright, & Garbers, 2008) to conceptualize this variable. From a psychological perspective, forgiveness is defined as rooting out negative thoughts, feelings, and behaviors directed at an offender and developing positive thoughts, feelings, and behaviors directed at the same (Subkoviak, Enright, Wu, Gassin, Frcedman, Olson, & Sarinopolous, 1995). It is not the same as pseudofor-giveness, or minimizing or outright denying the hurt. Enright (2001) is clear that forgiveness can be relevant even in cases where an offender is dead. Attachment is a physiologically-based bond that develops between two persons, at least one of whom who affords the other safety and affection. Originally discussed in the context of parent-infant relationships (Bowlby, 1969), research over the last 25 years has established that such bonds exist between adult romantic partners (Zeifman & Hazan, 2008), between friends (Wilkinson, 2010), and even between a believer and God (Granqvist & Kirk-patrick, 2008; Hall, Fujikawa, Halcrow, Hill, & Dclany, 2009). Recent conceptualizations, especially of adult attachment, define the concept in terms of two dimensions: anxiety and avoidance (Mikulincer & Shaver, 2007). Anxiety refers to a person's expectation that relationships can be hurtful and to her concern about rejection and/or abandonment. Avoidance refers to a person's tendency to maintain emotional distance in relationships and rely mainly on the self for coping. …

The Multidimensional Structure of the Quest Construct

Abstract: The study of religious motivation has been an important area of research in the psychology of religion since Allport and Ross (1967) developed their measure of intrinsic/extrinsic religion. Batson (1976) expanded the model of religious motivation by proposing the quest construct and its measurement with the Interactional Scale. Two additional measures of quest were developed by Altemeyer and Hunsberger (1992) and Dudley and Cruise (1990). Questions have been raised about the reliability and validity of the quest construct and its measures. The present study investigates the dimensionality and convergence of three measures of quest using a sample of 1200 undergraduates from nine Christian liberal arts colleges. Exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses identified five quest dimensions. The correlations of the five quest dimensions with several measures of religious functioning and religious fundamentalism were examined. Differences across four college classes on the quest dimensions were also tested. The three quest measures converged on two dimensions labeled Belief Change Expected and Doubts Value. These dimensions were uncorrected with measures of God awareness and religious well-being and negatively correlated with religious fundamentalism. The three other dimensions identified were unique to one of the measures. The dimension regarding existential questions was not well sampled by our pool of items. The dimensions Reason versus Faith and Religion as Quest were correlated negatively with God awareness and religious well-being as well as religious fundamentalism. The quest dimensions of change and doubt are core facets of Batson's original formulation and our results validate these two dimensions of his model. Measurement of the questions dimension requires further development. The validity and utility of the other two dimensions as aspects of quest will require further investigation. The empirical study of religion as an important social and personal variable has been a viable, if somewhat less than mainstream, pursuit in psychology for several decades. Psychology of religion research increased substantially when Allport and Ross (1967) developed their measure of intrinsic (I) and extrinsic (E) motivation (the Religious Orientation Scale, ROS). The measure was based upon Gordon Ailport's (Ailport, 1950) conceptualization of mature versus immature religious motivation. Allport (1950) proposed his model distinguishing between intrinsic and extrinsic motivation as a way to understand the observed association between prejudice and religious belief. While the intrinsic and extrinsic constructs and the ROS measure have been subjected to extensive review and critique (Donahue, 1985; Gorsuch & McPherson, 1989; Kirkpatrick, 1988), the I/E model of religious motivation has proved to be useful (Kirkpatrick & Hood, 1990) for psychology of religion research. Batson and his colleagues (Batson, 1976; Batson & Ventis, 1982; Batson, Schoenrade, & Ventis, 1993) provided another advance in psychology of religion with their proposal of a third dimension of religious motivation, which they called religion as Quest. They argued that the Religious Orientation Scale (ROS) did not adequately measure all facets of Allport's original model of mature religion. Specifically, they suggested that the ROS excluded salient facets such as openness, flexibility, tentativeness, and doubt (Batson, Schoenrade, & Ventis, 1993). They argued that these facets were particularly important for understanding the relationship between religion and prejudice. The quest motivation describes individuals for whom religion is an on-going, open-minded exploration of existential questions, acceptance of the fact that many important religious questions do not have clear-cut answers, and a tentativeness of belief that remains open to change as one grows and develops. Batson & Ventis (1982) proposed a six-item measure of quest called the Interactional Scale (IS). …

Cross-Cultural Comparison of Religious Coping Methods Reported by Native Guatemalan and Kenyan Faith-Based Relief Providers:

Abstract: Guatemala and Kenya are both countries that have recently experienced political violence in the context of long histories of colonialization, oppression and poverty. The current study examines focu...

Faith-Based Organizations in a System of Behavioral Health Care

Abstract: Through community service activities, and ministries to members within their congregations, faith communities will encounter individuals with behavioral health needs. This article suggests that fai...

The Multidimensional Nature of the Quest Construct Forgiveness, Spiritual Perception,& Differentiation of Self:

Abstract: Holeman, V. T., Dean, J. B., DeShea, L., & Duba, J. D. (2011). The Multidimensional Nature Of The Quest Construct Forgiveness, Spiritual Perception, & Differentiation Of Self. Journal Of Psychology & Theology, 39(1), 31-43.

Because God Said so: Religious Facets of Sexual and Gender Harassment in Christian Academia:

Abstract: The present study explored experiences of sexism (sexual and gender harassment) in a Christian university student population. This study assessed the frequency of sexism, documented how sexism is e...

Faith-Based HIV Care and Prevention in Chinese Immigrant Communities: Rhetoric or Reality?

Abstract: Ethnic churches attended by first generation Chinese immigrants are uniquely positioned to address emerging HIV prevention and care needs within the Chinese community at-large. Efforts to develop faith-based HIV programs necessitate identifying how HIV intersects with the sinicization of Christianity within Chinese churches. This paper will review the process of contextualizing HIV within theological and cultural frameworks that are meaningful for ethnic Chinese church leaders and members. The authors specifically propose two points of integration between public health and ecclesial functions: (1) HIV stigma-mitigation initiatives as informed by Christo-centric teachings of compassion and justice, and (2) HIV prevention and care reframed as social responsibility and informed by the Christian tradition of evangelism. Systems and practices that hinder and promote the involvement of Chinese churches in HIV prevention, care, and stigma-reduction will be discussed.

The Perceived Roles of God during Suicide Bereavement

Abstract: Ten women described their religious lives following the suicide of a family member. Using their audio-recorded and transcribed interviews, this qualitative pilot study describes their perceptions o...

Action-Oriented Research: A Primer and Examples:

Abstract: Action-oriented research is defined as generating knowledge through applied collaborative university-community interventions that can simultaneously contribute to local communities and add to gener...

Giving Voice to the Voiceless: Collaborative Inquiry in Poor Communities of Mexico City

Abstract: This article reports on a case study in the context of empowering persons in poor communities through a process of collaborative inquiry. This process began conceptually in the south of Mexico, and continued 28 years later in poor neighborhoods of Mexico City. This process of developing successful answers by communities for their well being was considered from indigenous (Mexican), holistic, Christian, collaborative and transformational perspectives. The communal discernment of members of communities in different contexts is reported as they were able to articulate for themselves the nature of psychological, relational, and spiritual well being. This process of collaborative inquiry dramatically transformed the participants as they continued to cope with extremely difficult living conditions. This essay will address a fundamental issue: "Does our limited analysis of the dimensions of poverty limit the way we seek solutions?" Harris, Nutbeam, and Sainsbury (2001) believe that poverty and other forms of social disadvantage are multidimensional in their manifestations, multifactorial in their causes, and complex in the way they operate on health and wellness. The purpose of this essay is to report on a case study of empowering persons in poor communities through a process of collaborative inquiry. This process began conceptually in Oaxaca, in the south of Mexico, and continued 28 years later in poor neighborhoods of Mexico City. This process of developing successful answers by communities for their well being is considered from indigenous (Mexican), holistic, Christian, collaborative and transformational perspectives. In Voices of the Poor (Narayan, Patel, Schafft, Rademacher, & Koch-Shulte, 2000) there are personal and detailed stories of more than 60,000 men and women from 60 countries about the reality of living in poverty. For them, poverty is much more than an economic issue, poverty is not having a voice to influence the key decisions that affect their lives and speak to provincial and national political realities. We will argue that empowering the poor involves the creation of community that takes seriously indigenous thought forms and habits, is holistic in its approach to needs, builds on Christian convictions, and creates the space necessary for communal discernment. Community Psychology in Latin America and Mexico During the second half of the twentieth century and the beginning of the twenty first, Brazil, Colombia, Chile, Mexico, Puerto Rico and Venezuela have been the sites where intense development of Community Psychology (CP), both as a practice and as an academic subject, has taken place. CP in Latin America (LA) has been committed to and focused on solving social issues and problems. It has sought ways of understanding and action that are relevant to the social, economic, and cultural contexts of LA. Since its origins in the 1970s in South America, the academic approach of CP in Latin America, was first a form of psychosocial intervention geared to social change and only later integrated empirical practice with theory, a process they called praxis. Contrary to what happened in other areas of psychology in LA, CP did not just follow models and ways of thinking and acting constructed in other parts of the world. This conceptual and practical independence led to different models and forms of praxis, going beyond the contemporary emphasis on welfare assistance, the predominance of the mental health movement, and the dominant clinical-medical paradigm (Montero, 1998). In the years before the 1970s there was a proto-social psychology phase when perspectives were ideological and used to justify authoritarian regimes, migration policies, and the creation of a submissive social conscience and identity. In the late 1950s and early 1960s there emerged a systematic affirmation of social psychology as a science, as a legitimate field for teaching and research. In the decade after the mid 1960s, social psychology went into a phase that consolidated it as an academic discipline but which was characterized by the non-critical reproduction of knowledge obtained outside Latin America, by a lack of contextualization and by the adoption of the experimental paradigm. …

Core Assumptions and Values in Community Psychology: A Christian Reflection:

Abstract: From the beginning, community psychologists made many of the assumptions behind their theories and methodologies explicit, openly articulating values at the core of their discipline. As a result, c...

An Initial Christian Counselor Internship Program for Ukraine

Abstract: A few initial efforts aimed at encouraging Christian counselor training outside the west have been emerging recently. However, there is no systematized plan for guiding or coordinating such efforts. This article describes a pilot program in Kyiv, Ukraine, which provided a two-year internship program in Christian counseling for recent master's level counselor graduates. The author reviews psychology training in the former Soviet Union, and post-Soviet Christian training programs. The article outlines the internship plans, supervision, supplementary training topics, as well as cultural and ethical issues encountered in Ukraine. Diverse cultures introduce different paths into professional identities & functions. In the Soviet education system, students studying clinical psychology experienced practicum and internship experiences much different from those in the west. This article describes an internship program developed in response to the need to prepare Christian counselors in Ukraine and the former Soviet Union (FSU). Having spent 10 years in the FSU training lay, pastoral, and professional counselors, my wife and I had the opportunity to design an internship program for graduates of a three-year master's level program in Christian counseling. IMMEDIATE CONTEXT: UKRAINF TODAY Social Problems Following domination by other nations, Ukraine struggles to find an identity (Ohana, 2007; Zazulya-Ostriehuk, 2006). After the collapse of the Soviet Union, Ukraine was the republic that seemed to have the brightest economic and political potential. The 1990's Ukraine saw economic collapse (Prizel, 2002), and political crises (Ohana, 2007). Today Ukraine ranks #3 in the world in corruption, and is "one of the worst governed countries in Europe" (Prizel, 2002, p. 377). In 1999, 82% of Ukraine's population lived on $4.30 per day or less. The male life expectancy was 14 years lower than Western Europe, and infant mortality was twice that of Western Europe (WHO, 2006). Health systems in the FSU countries have deteriorated greatly, including poorly functioning mental health delivery systems. Alcoholism, drug abuse and HIV contribute significantly to health problems (Cockerham, Hinote & Abbott, 2006). Secular Psychology and Counseling The Soviet government systematically repressed psychotherapy (Kondrat'ev, 1994; Nalchaijian, 1997; Segal, 1975), tightly controlling the few university psychology programs (Halpern & Voiskounsky, 1997). Openings for these slots were highly competitive, and the training was limited in quality (Halpern & Voiskounsky, 1997; Ritsher 1998). In 1978, there were 250 clinical psychologists in the entire Soviet Union (Lauterbach, 1978). In Ukraine in 2003, there were 200 consulting rooms for psychotherapy, with a total of 480 psychiatrists (Tabachinkov, Michailov, Maruta, 2004). The typical Soviet curriculum in clinical psychology included less than 50 hours of clinical observation. Students could easily circumvent these requirements (Marina Sidonrkina, personal communication, 2009). The majority of professional level therapists would seldom have internship training. Today an individual with an undergraduate degree in psychology will have the title of psychologist. Undergraduate level psychologists routinely have no supervised practicum or internship. The exception is the individual who undertakes supervision or internship at their own expense A graduate can begin their first job with no clinical preparation aside from the university degree. Actual conditions in psychotherapy services were much different than what patients in the west experience. Therapists tended to judge, evaluate, criticize (Petrovskaya, 1998). Carl Rogers visited Moscow and Yerevan in 1986 and wrote that he was surprised at the low level of tolerance and acceptance for one another among the clinicians in groups he led. …

Apa Accreditation of Doctoral Psychology Programs in Christian Universities

Abstract: There has been a history of suspicion and distrust between organized psychology and religion for more than a century. The nexus of this strained relationship is played out in the context of accreditation, in which doctoral programs in Christian institutions have faced challenges in obtaining accreditation. Some of these challenges have related to freedom of religion, academic freedom, non-discrimination policies, and diversity training. Footnote 4 in the APA Accreditation Guidelines and Principles is designed to address these challenges, yet there is ongoing discussion about the implementation and use of this footnote. The relationship between the accrediting body and Christian programs has developed from deep suspicion to a working, but cautious relationship; yet, the future of this relationship remains uncertain. Over the past 40 years several doctoral programs in overtly Christian universities (mostly members of the Council of Christian Colleges and Universities--CCCU) have sought accreditation from the American Psychological Association (APA) for their doctoral programs in professional or clinical psychology. Although it is stigmatizing and rarely completely accurate to categorize institutions, for the most part these institutions could be described as evangelical Protestant in their theological orientation. These institutions include: Azusa Pacific University, Fuller School of Psychology at Fuller Theological Seminary, George Fox University, Regent University, Rosemead School of Psychology at Biola University, Seattle Pacific University, and Wheaton College. As a secular organization, the American Psychological Association (APA) has been accrediting doctoral programs for more than 60 years, and currently does so through their Commission on Accreditation (CoA). Achieving and maintaining accreditation for the doctoral programs in Christian universities has been strenuous, and this paper is an attempt to articulate some of the past, current, and possible future difficulties in the accreditation process. There are two disclaimers that need to he made early in this article. First, I suggest that there is evidence of bias against religion on the part of psychology as a discipline. Similarly and perhaps consequently, I believe there has been some subtle bias in the accreditation process against programs based in Christian universities. I do not mean to imply that anyone in particular has been biased nor that the current CoA is biased. In fact, my personal experience with the CoA and leaders within APA over the years has been mostly positive and certainly constructive. I have been treated respectfully and have tried to be respectful in my dealings with the CoA. I appreciate the work that commission members do and believe that professional psychology and our programs are better because of the standards that they uphold. Yet, I think there have been some indications of subtle bias, particularly in the early days of accrediting doctoral programs in Christian universities. Second, this article is based on my personal experiences and observations as a faculty member and administrator in two Christian universities over the past 20 years. In this article, I speak for myself and do not represent leaders from other programs. Admittedly, it is largely subjective and anecdotal. Yet, I have had several interactions within APA Boards and Committees and other related professional organizations such as the National Council of Schools and Programs in Professional Psychology (NCSPP), interacted with several members of the CoA, been trained as an accreditation site visitor, participated in several accreditation site visits, written accreditation self-studies, and interacted with leaders in each of the other APA accredited doctoral programs in Christian universities. Thus, I believe those experiences provide a perspective that is valuable in understanding accreditation of Christian programs. The context for this discussion is that of a personal relationship. …

Community Psychology, the Church and Theological Perspectives: Introduction to the Special Issue:

Abstract: The indisputable focus in psychology in the past century has been the scientific study of the individual. Individualism in American culture has perforce shaped American psychology in the scope of its scholarly concern, its methodology and therapeutic goals. Alexis deTocqueville (1835/2003) was the first to comment on American individualism with a long train of interpreters there after. Rieff (1966) critiqued psychoanalysis for lacking a commitment to ethical culture that contains the autonomous individual. Bellah (1985) lamented the loss of covenant with increasing individualism in American society. It was Cushman (1995) who detailed psychology's dependence on American individualism. Community psychology emerged as a discipline in response to this social context, particularly the individual medical model of mental illness. The field officially had its beginnings at the 1965 Swampscott conference, where social scientists developed a form of psychology that emphasized prevention, multiple levels of analysis, and change at systemic levels, rather than focusing on individuals as responsible for their condition (Dalton, Elias & Wandersman, 2006; see Todd, 2011, in this issue for a more detailed account of the historical development of community psychology). This form of psychology studies the process through which an individual's context and community shape their development in positive and negative ways at the same time that it examines how individuals shape the systems around them. It should come as no surprise that Christian psychologists whose spiritual formation has been shaped by the church would be interested in community psychology. The church, as a sign of the Reign of God, is key theological fact, a historical presence, and a psychological experience (Green, 2008; Vanier, 1979). Grenz (1994) has made the case that because the Trinity is relational, being made in the image of God means that we more fully manifest this image when we are in community. Hence there are an increasing number of Christian psychologists who are trained in the field of community psychology or who have deep communal and cultural sensibilities that seek to engage in moral, theological and eccle-sial reflection on this field (Canning & Jones, in press; Moore, 1991; Rappaport, 1997, Sarason, 1974; Shwederetal., 1997; Wilson, 1995). In this issue we provide 8 essays that address integrative issues from four perspectives within community psychology: theological reflections, collaborative research, international concerns, and health care and prevention. These articles collectively both summarize and advance theological reflection and application of community psychology methods in faith-based settings, both in the U.S. and internationally. They also point to areas where both integrative reflection and research can be further developed. Theological Reflections on Community Psychology Our special issue begins with two articles that explore theological understandings of community psychology. Canning (2011) enumerates core principles and assumptions of community psychology and examines them through a theological lens. She then provides an example from her community consultation work to illustrate these core assumptions from an integrative perspective, as they are experienced in a community setting. Todd (2011) describes Latin American (e.g., Gutierrez, 1971; Cabestrero & Cardenal, 1981) and North American Black (e.g., Cone, 2003; Williams, 1995) liberation theologies and then generates a dialogue between these liberation theologies and community psychology in order to examine how each field contributes to an understanding of personal and social change through a process of liberation. Collaborative Research and Intervention Methods That Empower Participants Two articles include descriptions of research and intervention methods that empower participants through the process of collaboration and provide case studies where these methods were utilized. …

Journal of Marital & Family Therapy

Abstract: Emotional injuries, or incidents that significantly wound the emotional bond between a couple, and which are inflicted by one partner to another, can lead many couples to harbor lasting feelings of anger, betrayal, and resentment toward their partners, not uncommonly for years on end. While research has highlighted the great benefits of forgiveness in marital satisfaction, the process by which partners arrive to a place of forgiveness for the other can be confusing, complicated, and challenging. This study examined the effectiveness of Emotion-Focused Therapy for Couples in facilitating forgiveness. Emotion-Focused Therapy for Couples (EFT-C) is a psychotherapy modality that is distinguished by its emphasis on a couple's attunement to, experience and expression of biologically adaptive primary emotions, such as grief over a loss or anger over an injustice, which promotes securer attachments, healthy identity development, and the maintenance of healthy interpersonal boundaries. Furthermore, as a core tenet of EFT-C, the expression of these primary emotions invites "responsive affective attunement by a partner to the other's hurt" and is believed to facilitate the mending and healing of the emotional injuries (p. 31). Because of these distinct therapeutic qualities, EFT-C was believed to be well suited for helping couples overcome long-lasting emotional injuries, and thus was evaluated for its effectiveness in accomplishing this task. Participants for the study were recruited through advertisements in local newspapers. Participants were screened to meet inclusion and exclusion criteria, the most essential of which was for the couple to have "experienced an emotional injury by their partner at least 2 years prior and were still experiencing unresolved feelings of hurt or anger toward their partner in relation to the injury" (p. 35). The sample (N = 40) consisted of 20 couples ranging in ages between 25 and 75 years (M = 45.15, SD = 10.75). The couples, who were predominantly Caucasian (n = 34), had been living together for 4 to 53 years (M = 16.53, SD = 9.99) and had on average 2 children. The emotional injuries reported by the couples included affairs (9; 37.5%), abandonment (7; 29.2%), invalidation (4; 16.7%), deception (2; 8.3%), and alliance/triangulation (2; 8.3%). 11 qualified EFT-C therapists were utilized for the EFT-C treatment condition. A battery of ten self-report measures was administered to the couples before, during, and after treatment to assess specific domains. The measures included The Enright Forgiveness Inventory, Forgiveness Measure, Trust Scale, Unfinished Business Empathy and Acceptance Scale (EFB EA), Unfinished Business Feelings and Needs Scale (EFB FN), Dyadic Adjustment Scale, Target Complaints Discomfort and Change Scale, Global Symptom Index (GSI) of the Symptom Checklist 90 Revised (SCL-90-R), The Couples Therapy Alliance Scale, and the Structured Clinical Interview for DSM-III Axis II (SCID-II) Personality Questionnaire. Couples engaged in a 10-12 week waitlist period prior to treatment, and then were randomly assigned to therapists for 10-12 one-hour weekly couple therapy sessions. Analysis of the therapeutic alliance based on ratings by the therapists, supervisors, and clients indicated a good adherence to the EFT model and with satisfactory therapeutic alliances across all therapists. While numerous measures were calculated, of note is the 2 3 repeated measure ANOVA on partner (injured and injurer) and occasion (prewaitlist, pretreatment, and posttreatment) that was used to assess the efficacy of treatment. This analysis revealed a significant treatment effect in domains of forgiveness F(2, 76) = 3.34, p = .05; trust F(2, 76) = 4.29, p = .025; distressing symptoms F(2, 76) = 3 98, p = .023; and unfinished business related to feelings and needs F(2,76) = 5.17, p = .017). In these domains both injured and injuring partners changed positively over time between pre-treatment measures and post-treatment measures. …

Beliefs and Practices of Christian Psychotherapists regarding Non-Sexual Multiple Relationships:

Abstract: A group of 362 Christian mental health professionals were surveyed regarding their beliefs about and their practices concerning non-sexual multiple relationships (NSMR's). On each of 28 items, resp...