Showing papers in "Journal of Social Issues in 1976"
TL;DR: This paper investigated factors that predicted breakups before marriage, investigated as part of a two-year study of dating relationships among college students, including unequal involvement in the relationship and discrepant age, educational aspirations, intelligence, and physical attractiveness.
Abstract: Factors that predicted breakups before marriage, investigated as part of a two-year study of dating relationships among college students, included unequal involvement in the relationship (as suggested by exchange theory) and discrepant age, educational aspirations, intelligence, and physical attractiveness (as suggested by filtering models). The timing of breakups was highly related to the school calendar, pointing to the importance of external factors in structuring breakups. The desire to break up was seldom mutual; women were more likely than men to perceive problems in premarital relationships and somewhat more likely to be the ones to precipitate the breakups. Findings are discussed in terms of their relevance for the process of mate selection and their implications for marital breakup. (“The best divorce is the one you get before you get married.”)
543 citations
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors considered the marriage relationship as a special case of pair relationships in general, and its cohesiveness was interpreted according to concepts drawn from Lewinian field theory.
Abstract: The marriage relationship is considered as a special case of pair relationships in general, and its cohesiveness is interpreted according to concepts drawn from Lewinian field theory. The hypothetical constructs of “attraction” and “barrier” forces, as well as contrasting “alternative attractions,” are used to organize the research literature on the determinants of marital stability and dissolution.
444 citations
TL;DR: The centrality of motherhood to the definition of the adult female is characterized in the form of a mandate which requires having at least two children and raising them well as mentioned in this paper, and a direct attack on the motherhood mandate is seen as basic to eliminating sex role stereotypes, mythologies, and sex-typed behavior.
Abstract: The centrality of motherhood to the definition of the adult female is characterized in the form of a mandate which requires having at least two children and raising them well. The processes mandating motherhood are discussed. A direct attack on the motherhood mandate is seen as basic to eliminating sex-role stereotypes, mythologies, and sex-typed behavior. Given the social and cultural forces that propel women into motherhood — either by choice or by chance — a thorough analysis of the purpose of childbearing and childrearing in a changing society is basic to understanding persistence and change in sex-typed behavior.
343 citations
TL;DR: In this paper, a theory of sex-role stereotyping and power use in terms of how people interact in daily life situations is developed, where power use is affected by sex role stereotypes on three major dimensions: direct-indirect, concrete-personal, and competent-helpless.
Abstract: This paper develops a theory of sex-role stereotyping and power use in terms of how people interact in daily life situations. Power use is proposed to be affected by sex-role stereotypes on three major dimensions: direct-indirect, concrete-personal, and competent-helpless. It is demonstrated that women have less access, in reality and in expectations, to concrete resources and competence, leaving them with indirect, personal, and helpless modes of influence. Power use is examined in terms of sex-role stereotypes, and data are presented which support the hypothesis that people expect males and females to use different bases of power.
285 citations
TL;DR: The authors characterizes sex as a status characteristic, presents data supportive of the characterization, and offers suggestions for remedying the noted imbalance and suggests methods for improving the imbalance in power and prestige between males and females in work groups.
Abstract: Differences in activity, influence, and task orientation between males and females have been noted in small group research and have been attributed to differences in sex-role socialization. Similar differences in behavior are predicted from the formal theory of status characteristics and expectation states; methods for improving the imbalance in power and prestige between males and females in work groups are also derivable from the theory. This paper characterizes sex as a status characteristic, presents data supportive of the characterization, and offers suggestions for remedying the noted imbalance.
255 citations
TL;DR: The authors examines some persistent paradoxes in the definition of the male role, and proposes a distinction between traditional and modern male roles, and four current perspectives on the problems of male role are distinguished: individual-level sex-role identity, cultural-level role identity, contradictory socialization role strain, and inherent role strain.
Abstract: This article examines some persistent paradoxes in the definition of the male role, and proposes a distinction between traditional and modern male roles. Four current perspectives on the problems of the male role are distinguished: individual-level sex-role identity, cultural-level sex-role identity, contradictory socialization role strain, and inherent role strain. Finally, sources and forms of change in the male role are analyzed in terms of a distinction between the male role in relationship to women and the male role in other areas of life experience.
198 citations
TL;DR: In this article, the authors examined the intergenerational transmission of marital instability with the use of data from five surveys, four of them from national samples, and found that respondents from parental homes that were disrupted by death or divorce during their childhood had higher rates of divorce or separation in their own first marriages.
Abstract: The intergenerational transmission of marital instability was examined with the use of data from five surveys, four of them from national samples. Among blacks, whites, males, and females, respondents from parental homes that were disrupted by death or divorce during their childhood had higher rates of divorce or separation in their own first marriages. Except for black males, a greater transmission effect was found among respondents from childhood homes disrupted by divorce or separation rather than by death. Implications from the literature on sex-role learning in children were examined by comparing the transmission effect for respondents who, after having their parental homes disrupted, were reared in households of different composition. The results indicated that the role model rationale for the transmission of marital instability must be elaborated before it can successfully account for the findings from existing national surveys.
173 citations
TL;DR: The disruption of marriage regularly produces emotional distress, almost irrespective of the quality of the marriage or of desire for its dissolution as mentioned in this paper, which is similar to that described as occurring in children who have lost attachment figures and suggests that similar feelings are present in separating adults.
Abstract: The disruption of marriage regularly produces emotional distress, almost irrespective of the quality of the marriage or of desire for its dissolution. The distress is similar to that described as occurring in children who have lost attachment figures and suggests that similar feelings are present in the separating adults. It also suggests that, although other components of love fade in troubled marriages, attachment persists. Separated individuals, however, not only want to rejoin their spouses but also to express anger with them. They may manage the resulting ambivalence by partial suppression, by compartmentalization, or by alternating expression of positive and negative feelings.
164 citations
TL;DR: In this article, the authors used survey data on marital history and divorce statistics to estimate the proportion of children affected by marital disruption and found that about 25-30% of all children experienced a marital disruption.
Abstract: This article uses survey data on marital history and divorce statistics to estimate the proportion of children affected by marital disruption. Over the century, about 25–30% of all children experienced a marital disruption; in the next few decades, perhaps 40% of all children will be affected. These large numbers raise questions about how best to meet the special needs of the affected children. A review of the literature suggests that opposition to divorce reform “for the sake of the children” cannot be justified, and an examination of the economic problems of single-parent families leads to proposals for income support.
152 citations
TL;DR: In this article, a three-stage model of sex-role development is proposed, which accounts for the failure of traditional models to explain sex role socialization and eliminate discrimination, and necessitates exploration of multiple interactive processes which influence sex role development and several different mechanisms of growth.
Abstract: We propose a three-stage model of sex-role development which accounts for the failure of traditional models to explain sex-role socialization and eliminate discrimination. Our model asserts that sex-role development proceeds through three stages: an undifferentiated conception of sex roles, a polarized oppositional view of sex roles, and a transcendence of sex roles. The second stage characterizes many individuals and societal institutions today, and is regarded as the end-point in much social science work on sex roles. Our model necessitates exploration of multiple interactive processes which influence sex-role development and several different mechanisms of growth (accumulation of information and dialectic conflict resolution).
151 citations
TL;DR: This paper investigated the role of relative deprivation and rising expectations as mediating variables between social structure and black militancy through secondary analyses of survey data of blacks living in Cleveland and Miami in the late 1960s.
Abstract: The anomalous relationship between improvements in the socioeconomic condition of blacks and the rise of the civil rights movement and urban riots of the 1960s is frequently explained by social scientists in terms of theories of relative deprivation (RD) and rising expectations (RE). The present paper investigates the role of RD and RE as mediating variables between social structure and black militancy through secondary analyses of survey data of blacks living in Cleveland and Miami in the late 1960s. While the results are generally supportive, the mediating roles of RD and RE are not as important as originally anticipated. Alternative explanations and implications derived from the present data and the theories for the future of black militancy are discussed.
TL;DR: Theory and research on the psychological construct of "fear of success" is reviewed in the context of Horner's original (1968) formulation of the motive as mentioned in this paper, and the validity and the reliability of the original measure are questioned in the light of the weakness of empirical support.
Abstract: Theory and research on the psychological construct of “fear of success” is reviewed in the context of Horner's original (1968) formulation of the motive. Both the validity and the reliability of the original measure are questioned in the light of the weakness of empirical support. The findings of subsequent research are organized in terms of what they contribute to a situational rather than a motivational interpretation of the data. Implications of these different views of the achievement behavior of females for changes in sex-role socialization are discussed.
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors examined sex differences in achievement expectancies from a cognitive-developmental point of view and found that females have lower initial expectancies for success than males.
Abstract: This paper examines sex differences in achievement expectancies from a cognitive-developmental point of view. It has been reported consistently that females have lower initial expectancies for success than males. The antecedents of this difference are considered: (a) by examining when expectancy differences develop, and (b) by examining cognitive factors which may underlie these differential expectancies. The discussion of the first question is primarily empirical in nature; previous developmental studies of expectancy are reviewed and original data presented. Discussion of the second question is more theoretical and speculative. Based on the Weiner attributional model of achievement, the role of subjective perceptions in mediating expectancy differences is considered.
TL;DR: In this article, the authors present an overview of trends in marriage and divorce behavior among the adult population in the United States from the early twentieth century to the present time, focusing on the increasing incidence of marital dissolution through divorce.
Abstract: This paper presents an overview of trends in marriage and divorce behavior among the adult population in the United States from the early twentieth century to the present time, focusing on the increasing incidence of marital dissolution through divorce. The discussion includes analyses of the probable causative impact of several types of changes on the stability of marriage: socioeconomic variables generally associated with divorce; overall social acceptability of divorce as reflected by lessened negative economic and social sanctions; and the roles of women in modern American society. The final section is devoted to a brief summation and offers related hypotheses regarding the future of marital stability in this country.
TL;DR: This article found that children's perceptions of reality in TV increase as the specificity of content increases, and interpersonal communication about television is a significant predictor of children's reality perceptions, and TV usage is positively related to perception of reality while age and IQ are negative predictors.
Abstract: Children's perceptions of reality in television are examined as an intervening variable between exposure to the medium and the effect of TV messages. Findings from previous work and data from schoolchildren in grades 3–6 indicate that: (a) perceptions of the reality of TV increase as the specificity of content increases, (b) interpersonal communication about television is a significant predictor of children's reality perceptions, and (c) TV usage is positively related to perceptions of reality while age and IQ are negative predictors. Questions about children's experiences with real-life counterparts of TV characters were not related to reality perceptions.
TL;DR: A number of studies have shown that certain nonverbal behaviors are reliable indicators of dominance and relative status within a group while other behaviors indicate liking and emotional warmth as discussed by the authors, and these same cues have been independently found to differentiate men and women so that men display more dominance and high-status cues and women more liking and warmth in their nonverbal expressions.
Abstract: A number of studies have documented that certain nonverbal behaviors are reliable indicators of dominance and relative status within a group while other behaviors indicate liking and emotional warmth. These same cues have been independently found to differentiate men and women so that men display more dominance and high-status cues and women more liking and warmth in their nonverbal expressions. These sex differences perpetuate sex-role stereotypes, are particularly resistant to change because of their nonconscious nature, and serve to maintain traditional sex roles.
TL;DR: This paper conducted interviews in 18 white suburban neighborhoods into which a new family had recently moved and found marked differences in how black and white families are received by white residents and revealed patterns of change over time which reflect the processes inherent in the integration experience.
Abstract: Interviews were conducted in 18 white suburban neighborhoods into which a new family had recently moved — in 8 neighborhoods a new black family, in the other 10 a white. Prior interviews in some neighborhoods indicated a high degree of comparability between residents of the two sets of neighborhoods. Interviews conducted one month, three months, and one year after the families had moved in assessed a variety of attitudinal and behavioral indicators of residents' reactions to new neighbors. Results not only showed marked differences in how black and white families are received by white residents but also revealed patterns of change over time which reflect the processes inherent in the integration experience.
TL;DR: This paper examined the existing evidence on the association between premarital pregnancy and marital dissolution, deriving possible explanations to account for the link between the timing of conception and the marital outcome, and testing certain of these explanations using selected data from a five-year longitudinal study on the social consequences of unplanned parenthood.
Abstract: This paper examines the existing evidence on the association between premarital pregnancy and marital dissolution, deriving possible explanations to account for the link between the timing of conception and the marital outcome, and testing certain of these explanations using selected data from a five year longitudinal study on the social consequences of unplanned parenthood. Information was collected on the marital careers of 203 young women who became premaritally pregnant in their early teens and 90 of their classmates most of whom married before pregnancy. The marital histories of the two samples show that disruption in the courtship process and limited economic resources are the most important factors contributing to marital dissolution.
TL;DR: A programmable instruction approach to race relations training in the United States Army involved the development of the technique (culture assimilator) and its field test as discussed by the authors, which used a set of events far more familiar to black officers than the white officers.
Abstract: A programmed instruction approach to race relations training in the United States Army involved the development of the technique (culture assimilator) and its field test In the development phase 65 black officers, 90 black enlisted men, 65 white officers, and 90 white enlisted men participated; in the field test 84 white junior grade officers and 85 black junior grade officers participated Results indicated: (a) the sample of problems used in the assimilator represents a set of events far more familiar to black officers than the white officers; (b) blacks obtain higher scores on the assimilator (indicative of greater knowledge of the black perspective on race relations in the army) than whites; (c) significant evidence of learning of acculturative materials on the part of white officers was obtained; and (d) there was significant improvement on an independent test of intercultural understanding
TL;DR: The role of social, personality, and outlook factors in accounting for media usage and taste was examined at several developmental stages, as well as longitudinally across the 20 year span of the study as mentioned in this paper.
Abstract: In England in 1951, as part of a larger inquiry, 13–14-year-old boys from middle and working class homes were systematically assessed as to the role of media in their lives. In 1962, when they were 24–25, 365 of the group completed a questionnaire about leisure and the media; and in 1970, 246 of the sample, then aged 32–33 were again questionned. The relative role of social, personality, and outlook factors in accounting for media usage and taste was examined at the several developmental stages, as well as longitudinally across the 20 year span of the study, which encompassed the period during which television was introduced and absorbed into the leisure space of the sampled population.
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors examined the costs and benefits of divorce for divorced mothers and suggested that for many women divorce may be the "chance of a new lifetime" and advocated the development of services and lobbying groups for divorced women within existing women's centers, as well as the establishment of specialized "divorce centers" to serve women both during the acute crises of separation and on a continuing basis.
Abstract: This article examines, from a feminist perspective, the costs and the benefits accruing to divorced mothers and suggests that for many women divorce may be the “chance of a new lifetime.” Case materials from interviews with divorced mothers are cited and implications for social policy are discussed. Development of services and lobbying groups for divorced women within existing women's centers are advocated, as well as the establishment of specialized “divorce centers,” to serve women both during the acute crises of separation and on a continuing basis.
TL;DR: Within-subject evidence also exists for equal treatment to both majority and minority group members as mentioned in this paper, when subjects are provided a means of monitoring their own behavior toward minority and majority group members.
Abstract: Research is reviewed which demonstrates the existence of reverse discrimination (majority group members treating other majority group members worse than they treat members of a minority group) and tokenism (a decrease in subsequent compliance to large interracial requests following prior compliance to smaller requests). While both phenomena can be demonstrated experimentally, within-subject evidence also exists for egalitarianism (equal treatment to both majority and minority group members). It appears that, when subjects are provided a means of monitoring their own behavior toward majority and minority group members, egalitarianism results. In the absence of an opportunity for monitoring, reverse discrimination occurs.
TL;DR: In this paper, an examination of some interpersonal factors related to adolescents' television viewing is presented, with particular emphasis on dimensions of communication in the family and with peers, and four specific viewing contexts are examined: with parents, with siblings, with friends, and alone.
Abstract: An examination of some interpersonal factors related to adolescents' television viewing is presented, with particular emphasis on dimensions of communication in the family and with peers. Four specific viewing contexts are examined: with parents, with siblings, with friends, and alone. Perceptions of reality and violence are highest while viewing with parents; entertainment is associated more closely with viewing in other contexts. Examination of family communication patterns reveals that adolescents from socio-oriented families tend to vary their viewing patterns more in the direction of their parents than do those in families where this orientation is weak. Analysis of peer communication patterns suggests that strong peer orientations are associated with conformity to peer viewing norms when viewing with friends. Measures of social learning suggest that it is greatest when the child is viewing with parents. The modifying effects of viewing are discussed and new methodologies encouraged for future research.
TL;DR: The authors found that fantasy is construed as a reality experience and that a reality set may stimulate an aggressive behavior response, while a fantasy set reduces it over that of a no-TV control group.
Abstract: It is deemed critical to an understanding of the influence of the media, TV in particular, that we examine the functions of behaviors classed as fantasy activities. A major dimension of importance to such understanding is the extent to which fantasy is construed as a reality experience. Results of an experimental test with children in a controlled viewing situation support the hypothesis that a reality set may stimulate an aggressive behavior response, while a fantasy set reduces it over that of a no-TV control group. Factor analysis of field study data reveals systematic differences in subjects' preferences for particular classes of aggressive programs, reinforcing the view that the issues in this area are multifaceted and multivariate. Five mechanisms by which a fantasy experience can produce a diminution in aggression are discussed, and it is suggested that analysis and study of these factors is a necessary next step.
TL;DR: In this paper, an explanation for differential career achievement in women and men is presented based on social psychological theories, such as role theory and social comparison and attribution theory, rather than on the genetic or personality theories which have been advanced in the past.
Abstract: An explanation is presented for differential career achievement in women and men. The analysis proposed is based on social psychological theories, such as role theory and social comparison and attribution theory, rather than on the genetic or personality theories which have been advanced in the past. The paper focuses on the situational factors which operate on women to shape their domestic and professional choices and behavior. These factors are analyzed from the perspectives of traditional housewives and mothers; career women; and women who attempt to combine the responsibilities of housewife, mother, and professional.
TL;DR: In this article, it is proposed that the sex composition of a group affects the sex-role awareness and sex-related responses of its members, and that such effects can operate even when there is no actual or anticipated verbal interaction among group members.
Abstract: It is proposed that the sex composition of a group affects the sex-role awareness and sex-related responses of its members, and that such effects can operate even when there is no actual or anticipated verbal interaction among group members. In fact, the “mere presence” of certain proportions of males and females may be sufficient. Relevant studies by the present authors and others are reviewed, and their implications for the sex-role status quo are considered.
TL;DR: In this article, it is suggested that the female way of being social, since it involves bonding and affiliative attachment, renders women more vulnerable to social deprivation and hence vulnerable to depression, and self-initiated behaviors among women to change especially the negative view of woman's world and to rehabilitate female homosociality.
Abstract: The disproportionately large number of women compared to men among those identified as victims of depression presents both a serious social problem and a challenge to our understanding of social processes and issues. Role-related explanations for this peculiar sex ratio do not adequately account for its incidence, its prevalence, or its persistence over time. The variable, “relational deficit,” as particularly having to do with the different ways that men and women relate to their own sex (homosociality), is proposed as a potentially clarifying concept in this context. It is suggested that the female way of being social — whatever its basis — since it involves bonding and affiliative attachment renders women more vulnerable to social deprivation and hence vulnerable to depression. Alleviation of the discriminating practices which undercut the self-esteem and confidence of women and thus contribute to the helplessness which engenders depression is urged, as are self-initiated behaviors among women to change especially the negative view of woman's world and to rehabilitate female homosociality.
TL;DR: In this article, the effects of fantasy violent content in television on aggressive behavior are reviewed and used to assess three positions: (a) an activation view that watching televised fantasy violence causes aggressive behavior, (b) a catharsis view that aggression in some groups may be decreased following the observation of such violence, and (c) a null view that such violence on television has not been demonstrated to have significant effects on aggressive behaviour.
Abstract: Studies of the effects of fantasy violent content in television on aggressive behavior are reviewed and used to assess three positions: (a) an activation view that watching televised fantasy violence causes aggressive behavior, (b) a catharsis view that aggression in some groups may be decreased following the observation of such violence, and (c) a null view that such violence on television has not been demonstrated to have significant effects on aggressive behavior. Studies are discussed with regard to their representativeness in sampling and design. In contrast to earlier reviews which have advocated the activation position, the evidence is here interpreted as supporting the null view.
TL;DR: In this article, a racial attitude inventory made up of nine empirically identified dimensions successfully predicted whites' membership in attitudinal criterion groups and two additional dimensions were hypothesized: reactions to interracial marriage and preference between an approach to racial equality for black Americans which stresses changes in society and one stressing changes in blacks themselves.
Abstract: The empirical approach to the analysis of attitude organization suggests that verbal racial attitudes are not organized in terms of cognitive, affective, and conative (or behavioral) components but rather in terms of content areas that cross-cut this structural trichotomy. A racial attitude inventory made up of nine empirically identified dimensions successfully predicted whites' membership in attitudinal criterion groups. In this study two additional dimensions were hypothesized: (a) reactions to interracial marriage and (b) preference between an approach to racial equality for black Americans which stresses changes in society and one stressing changes in blacks themselves. Cluster analyses confirmed the existence of these two additional dimensions as well as the original nine. A validation study indicates that both new dimensions as well as the original nine successfully differentiate groups of whites known to differ in racial attitude.
TL;DR: This paper found that the more live and rich the medium, the more favorably the communicator was evaluated; but media were equally effective in generating agreement with the candidate's message, while individuals showed more attitude change.
Abstract: Potential political candidates gave live, televised, audio, or written presentations to individuals and groups under laboratory conditions. The more live and rich the medium, the more favorably the communicator was evaluated; but media were equally effective in generating agreement with the candidate's message. Groups judged candidates more favorably than individuals, but individuals showed more attitude change. The results provide mixed support for a new theory of social impact and have implications for application in political campaigns.