Showing papers in "Journal of Sports Medicine and Physical Fitness in 1999"

Physical Activity Scale for the Elderly (PASE) : the relationship with activity measured by a portable accelerometer

Abstract: BACKGROUND The purpose of this study was to examine the validity of the Physical Activity Scale for the Elderly (PASE) by comparing PASE scores with physical activity assessed by a portable accelerometer. METHODS EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN Correlational-mean activity level over a 3-day period was correlated with PASE scores. SETTING Physical activity of participants was monitored over 3 days during normal daily activity. PARTICIPANTS Twenty healthy adult volunteers, 67-80 years of age, participated in this study. MEASURES Physical activity from 09:00 to 21:00 hours was assessed over 3 consecutive weekdays (Wednesday-Friday) using a Computer Science and Applications, Inc. (CSA) portable accelerometer. Following completion of the 3-day monitoring period physical activity was assessed with the PASE. RESULTS PASE scores were significantly correlated with average 3-day CSA readings (r = 0.49, p < 0.05) in the total sample and in those over age 70 years (r = 0.64, p < 0.5). CONCLUSIONS These results add to the literature supporting the validity of the PASE as a measure of physical activity in older individuals.

The contribution of anthropometric characteristics to performance scores in elite female gymnasts.

Abstract: Background. Aims of this study were: a) to identify anthropometric variables correlated with gymnastic performance, and b) to predict performance scores from a combination of anthropometric dimensions. Methods. Experimental design: correlational analysis and a stepwise multiple regression were used. Setting: Subjects were participants at the 24th World Championships Artistic Gymnastics, Rotterdam, The Netherlands, in 1987. Participants: A total of 168 female gymnasts (mean age: 16.5±1.8 years) were investigated. Each gymnast participated in all events. Measures: An extensive battery of anthropometric dimensions was taken on each athlete. The somatotype was estimated. Skeletal maturation of the hand-wrist was assessed. Competition scores for the four individual gymnastic events (balance beam, floor exert cise, vault, uneven bars) and a composite score for each gymnast were the dependent variables. Results. Moderately high, significant correlations (p<0.01) were observed between skinfolds and endomorphy, and gymnastics performance scores, r varying from -0.38 to -0.60, for biceps skinfold and the score on balance beam, and for endomorphy and the total score, respectively. The correlations suggest that gymnasts with more subcutaneous fat and higher endomorphy have lower performance scores. About 32 % to 45 % of the variance in gymnastic performance scores could be explained by anthropometric dimensions and/or derived variables, but endomorphy and chronological age are the most important predictors. Conclusions. There is a relatively strong relationship between several anthropometric variables and gymnastic performance in a sample of elite female gymnasts, but the associations are not sufficiently high to predict performance scores on an individual basis.

Anthropometric, strength, and power predictors of sprinting performance.

Abstract: Background The purpose of this study was to examine relations between sprinting performance (i.e. average velocity within both the initial acceleration and maximum speed phases of sprint running) and some standard anthropometric, strength, and power tests. Methods Twenty-four male students of physical education were timed over the distances of 0.5-15 m and 15-30 m from the sprint start. Several measures of muscle isometric strength (knee extensors, hip extensors and flexors) and power (height of the counter movement jump and the average power of leg extensors during continuous jumping) were also collected, in addition to the lean body mass and the percentage of both muscle and fat tissue. Results The results obtained demonstrated that, except for the height of the counter movement jump, all correlation coefficients between the selected variables and sprinting performance were low and, therefore, insignificant. As a consequence, multiple correlation coefficients were also low (0.43 and 0.56 for the initial acceleration and maximal speed phase, respectively). Conclusions Most of the standard anthropometric, strength and power tests could be poor predictors of sprinting performance. A better assessment of sprinting performance could be based on more specific tests that, unfortunately, require more complex measurements.

The effects of slow- and fast-rhythm classical music on progressive cycling to voluntary physical exhaustion.

Abstract: Background. To investigate, based on the parallel information processing model and arousal hypothesis, whether musical tempo and its manipulation during exercise affect the maximal workload (watts) achieved during progressive cycling. Methods. Design: repeated measures experiment that involved one control and four treatment conditions. Settings: the experiment was performed in a controlled laboratory environment. Participants: twenty-four male and female volunteers, recruited from among a University population, were tested. Intervention: the data collection proceeded in five counterbalanced test-sessions that included control (C), slow music (SM), fast music (FM) slow to fast music (SFM) and fast to slow music (FSM) interventions. In the last two conditions, musical tempo was changed when the participant's maximal HR reserve has reached 70%. In all test-sessions, participants started to cycle at 50 watts and then the workload was increased in increments of 25 watts every minute until self-declared exhaustion. Maximal ergometer cycling was defined as the workload at the last completed minute of exercise. Measures: workload, HR, and postexperimental ratings of test-session preferences were the dependent measures. Results. Significantly higher workload was accomplished in the SFM condition. No between-session differences were seen in HR. The results also yielded significantly better efficiency, in terms of workload/HR reserve ratio, in the SFM session. Participants preferred the FM and SFM sessions more than the other sessions. Conclusions. Switching to FM during progressive exercise results in the accomplishment of more work without proportional changes in HR. These effects may be due to distraction from fatigue and are, apparently, dependent on the attention capturing strength of the distracting stimulus.

Ankle sprains in players of the field-games Gaelic football and hurling.

Abstract: BACKGROUND: The objectives of the study were to determine the most common injuries in Gaelic football and hurling and to quantify contributory factors. Hypothesis: The hypothesis tested was "Ankle sprains are a common injury in Gaelic football and hurling and their incidence can be linked to physical characteristics of the players". METHODS: Experimental design: prospective study over four years. Subjects: eighty male players of Gaelic football, and hurling, aged 18-27 years. Measures: the injuries sustained over a four-year period. Physical fitness tests and examination at the start of the study which included assessment of: anthropometric variables, lower-limb proprioception, lung function, six aspects of flexibility, 15 aspects of posture and body mechanics. RESULTS: 962 significant sports injuries which included: 218 strains and 184 sprains. 122 were ankle sprains; 79 to the left ankle and 43 to the right. 104 ankle sprains represented a recurrence of this injury in a particular individual. In 26 out of 34 of these subjects both ankles were involved. This suggests that recurrence is not primarily due to previous injury but to intrinsic factors in the subjects that predispose them to ankle sprain. The subjects who sustained ankle sprains had (1) greater height, (2) lower body mass index (3) a higher incidence of posture defects of the ankle and knee, (4) more clinical defects (5) a higher incidence of defective lower-limb proprioception. CONCLUSIONS: Ankle sprains are a common injury. Their incidence is linked to the five intrinsic factors listed above. Language: en

Relationship between strength qualities and performance in standing and run-up vertical jumps.

Abstract: Background The purpose of this investigation was to determine the relationships between the strength qualities of the leg extensor musculature and performance in vertical jumps (VJ) performed from a standing position and a run-up. Methods Twenty-nine males with experience in jumping activities were tested for vertical jumping capacities with a standing VJ (double leg takeoff) and run-up jumps from a 1, 3, 5 and 7 stride approach (single leg takeoff). The speed-strength and maximum strength qualities of the leg extensors were assessed by tests involving concentric, stretch-shortening cycle (SSC) and isometric muscular actions. Pearson's correlations and stepwise multiple regression was performed to describe the relationships with jumping performance. Results The speed-strength tests correlated significantly with both jump types (r = 0.55-0.82), but maximum strength did not. A drop jump test considered to measure reactive strength correlated more strongly with the run-up jump than the standing VJ. The standing VJ was best predicted by a low stretch load SSC test, whereas the run-up jump was best predicted by a model that also including the test of reactive strength. Conclusion The role of maximum strength in jumping performance was not clear but speed-strength qualities were considered important. It was concluded that reactive strength is relatively more important for jumping from a run-up than for the standing VJ, and this should be reflected by appropriate training methods and test protocols for the assessment of athletes who jump.

Immune responses to exercise in children treated for cancer.

Abstract: Background. Children treated for cancer commonly benefit physiologically from moderate aerobic training, but it is less clear if impairment of the immune system secondary to chemotherapy reduces the immunological tolerance of exercise relative to normal children. Methods. Experimental design: a case series. Setting: hospital laboratory. Participants: six children aged 13-14 yr, successfully treated for acute lymphoblastic leukaemia and other types of neoplasms,were compared with 11 normal volunteer children. Interventions: three of the sample underwent 12 weeks training at 70-85% of maximal heart rate; the remaining three provided initial and final test data only. Measures: mood state (Piers-Harris test), anthropometric data, maximal oxygen intake, response to 30 min exercise challenges at anaerobic threshold, and standard immune measures (differential count, cytolytic activity, and mitogen-induced lymphocyte proliferation) at rest, during and following submaximal exercise. Results. A low maximal oxygen intake, excess of body fat, and high anxiety scores all improved with training. Children who were still receiving chemotherapy showed low resting CD3+, CD4+, CD8+, CD19+ and CD25+ counts and reduced PHA-induced proliferation. Acute exercise and training caused further impairment of immune responses, although changes remained insufficient to cause concern for health. Conclusions. Exercise therapy is beneficial following treatment of cancer, but should be prescribed individually, with a careful monitoring of immune responses.

Urine color, osmolality and specific electrical conductance are not accurate measures of hydration status during postexercise rehydration.

Abstract: Department of Human Biology, Maastricht University, The Netherlands. BACKGROUND: The aim of the study was to determine whether urine color, osmolality and specific electrical conductance (SEC) provide an accurate index of hydration status and of fluid requirements during the recovery phase after an acute exercise-induced dehydration. METHODS: Experimental design: eight well-trained healthy males were dehydrated about 3% of body mass, 3 times, by cycling in the heat. To rehydrate after exercise, three types of drinks frequently consumed by athletes postexercise, i.e. a caffeinated soft drink (CC), a mineral water (MW), or a carbohydrate-electrolyte solution (CES) were ingested ad libitum and in randomized cross-over design during the first 2 hrs of an observation period lasting 6 hrs. Measures: urine was sampled each hour for determination of color, osmolality and SEC. Net rehydration was calculated from fluid intake and fluid loss by sweat and urine. RESULTS: Fluid intake amounted 2.6 +/- 0.2 kg for CC, 2.2 +/- 0.2 kg for MW and 2.8 +/- 0.3 kg for CES representing 116%, 96% and 127% of fluid lost by sweat. Urine output showed a negative correlation with color, osmolality and SEC (p 0.05). CONCLUSIONS: Urine color, SEC and osmolality are poor indicators of hydration status measured from the balance between fluid intake and urine output up to 6 hrs postexercise. Publication Types: Clinical Trial Randomized Controlled Trial

Ultraendurance triathlon participation: typical race preparation of lower level triathletes.

Abstract: BACKGROUND This study sought to describe the training preparations and performances of lower level ultraendurance triatheletes. The lower level or typical ultraendurance athlete was defined as any participant eligible to compete, irrespective of ability. METHODS EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN participants completed a retrospective questionnaire related to their athletic background, triathlon experience and performances, and training preparation. SETTING all competitors in the 1995 Lanzarote Ironman (i.m.) triathlon had the opportunity to complete the questionnaire in the days prior to the race. PARTICIPANTS 242 (230 m, 12 f) or 45% of the entire race field completed the questionnaire. MEASURES measures of central tendency were used to describe all data. Forward step-wise multiple regression techniques were used to predict performance from training variables. Statistical significance was accepted at p < 0.05. RESULTS Mean finish time for all study participants was 11.76 hours. Subjects were 34.2 +/- 8.8 years, 1.77 +/- 0.07 m, and 70.8 +/- 7.1 kg. They had 6.0 +/- 3.2 years experience in triathlon, had completed 3.0 +/- 4.1 IM races, and spent 21.5 +/- 10.8 weeks preparing for the IM. Training distances/week for swimming, cycling and running, were 8.8 +/- 4.3 km, 270 +/- 107 km, and 58.2 +/- 21.9 km, at a pace of 18.1 min/km, 31.8 km/hr, and 4.55 min/km respectively. Previous best performances in Olympic distance triathlon (1.5/40/10) coupled with weekly cycling distances and longest training ride, could partially predict overall performance (R2 = 0.57). CONCLUSIONS Finishing an IM requires less training than has been previously reported in studies that have primarily focused on elite competitors. Additionally, training distances appear to be a more important factor for competitive success than training paces.

Head and neck injuries in young taekwondo athletes

Abstract: Background. To investigate the location, type, situation and mechanism of head and neck injuries in young taekwondo athletes. Methods. Experimental design: Prospective. Setting: National and international taekwondo tournaments. Participants: 3,341 boys and 917 girls, aged 6 to 16 years. Measures: Injury rates per 1,000 athlete-exposures (A-E) for total number of head and neck injuries, location, type, situation, and mechanism of injury. Results. There was a significant difference between young male and female taekwondo athletes in total head and neck injury rate (p<0.001) with the boys (21.42/1,000 A-E) recording a higher rate than the girls (16.91/1,000 A-E). The head was the most often injured body part (6.10/1,000 A-E and 4.55/1,000 A-E for boys and girls, respectively). The contusion was the most often occurring injury type for both boys (8.41/1,000 A-E) and girls (7.80/1,000 A-E). The cerebral concussion ranked second in both boys (5.11/1,000 A-E) and girls (4.55/1,000 A-E). The unblocked attack was the major injury situation for both boys (19.78/1,000 A-E) and girls (14.96/1,000 A-E). As a consequence, the major injury mechanism was receiving a blow (20.93/1,000 A-E and 16.25/1,000 A-E for boys and girls, respectively). Only the boys (0.66/1,000 A-E) incurred the most serious head and neck injuries that resulted in ≥21 days away from participation. Conclusions. The national and international taekwondo governing bodies should review their current injury prevention measures. Given the potentially debilitating nature of these injuries, implications for any diagnostic capabilities on site should be carefully reviewed.

Investigation of anthropometric and work-rate profiles of Rugby Sevens players.

Abstract: Background To describe anthropometric and match performance profiles of international Rugby Sevens players and explore correlations between anthropometric characteristics and work-rates in matches. Methods Profiles were compared by means of multivariate analysis and correlation techniques. Settings measurements were made on players participating in the 1996 International Rugby Sevens tournament in Uruguay. Subjects Thirty male players. Measures work-rate analysis during matches (n = 30) and a comprehensive anthropometry profile of 27 of the 30 players. Results Forwards had more mass (whole-body, adipose tissue, muscle) than backs, jogged more frequently and paused more often. High intensity activity was negatively correlated with muscle mass and with mesomorphy. Conclusions Anthropometric features are related to components of match play in Rugby Sevens but do not necessarily determine whether a game is won or lost.

Muscle enzyme release does not predict muscle function impairment after triathlon.

Abstract: Background. We sought to determine the effects of a long distance triathlon (4 km swim, 120 km bike-ride, and 30 km run) on the four-day kinetics of the biochemical markers of muscle damage, and whether they were quantitatively linked with muscle function impairment and soreness. Methods. Experimental design: Data were collected from 2 days before until 4 days after the completion of the race. Participants: Twelve triathletes performed the triathlon and five did not. Measures: Maximal voluntary contraction (MVC), muscle soreness (DOMS) and total serum CK, CK-MB, LDH, AST and ALT activities were assessed. Results. Significant changes after triathlon completion were found for all muscle damage indirect markers over time (p<0.0001). MVC of the knee extensor and flexor muscles decreased over time (p<0.05). There is disparity in the time point at which peak values where reached for DOMS, MVC and enzyme leakage. There is no correlation between serum enzyme leakage, DOMS and MVC impairment which occur after triathlon. Conclusions. Long distance triathlon race caused muscle damage, but extent, as well as muscle recovery cannot be evaluated by the magnitude of changes in serum enzyme activities. Muscle enzyme release cannot be used to predict the magnitude of the muscle function impairment caused by muscle damage.

Gender differences in physical activity and physical fitness in young children in Crete.

Abstract: BACKGROUND: To assess physical activity and physiological fitness parameters among six year old children and to determine whether there were any significant gender differences. METHODS: Design & Setting: comparative study of a representative sample of boys and girls in school and at home. Participants: 569 children (305 boys and 264 girls) selected randomly from a total of 6153 registered in the 1st grade in 1992 on the island of Crete. Measures: assessment of physical activity was based on observational methods involving teachers and parents. Cardiorespiratory fitness was estimated by performance on the 20 meter Shuttle Run Test (20mSRT). BMI, skinfold thickness, Midarm Muscle Circumference (MMC) and hemoglobin were also measured. RESULTS: Both sexes were found to spend a very small proportion of their leisure time in Moderate to Vigorous Physical Activities (MVPA). More boys engaged in MVPA than girls at school and at home, but more girls were involved in physical activity-related lessons and classes out of school. Among the physiological fitness parameters, significant gender differences were found only for MMC. No significant gender difference was found in performance on the 20mSRT. CONCLUSIONS: The results indicate that in this culture stereotypic sex preferences in physical activity begin at a very young age, and that this differentiation cannot be attributed to gender differences in cardiorespiratory fitness. The social, environmental and possibly psychological parameters involved have implications for Health Educators and Physical Education Instructors in the appropriate targeting of physical activity promotion programs among young children. Language: en

Reproducibility of the oxygen uptake efficiency slope in normal healthy subjects.

Abstract: Background. To elucidate the intertest agreement of the oxygen uptake efficiency slope (OUES) in comparison with those of the maximal oxygen uptake (VO 2 max) and the ventilatory anaerobic threshold (VAT). Methods. Experimental design: A comparative study. Setting: Institutional practice. A total of 19 healthy volunteers underwent two sessions of maximal exercise testing with an interval of no more than 7 days. The testing was conducted on a cycle ergometer with the work rate increased by either 20, 30, or 40 Watts (W)/min so that the subject would reach exhaustion within 9 to 12 min of exercise. VAT was defined as the level of oxygen uptake (VO 2 ) at which either an increase in the ventilatory equivalent for oxygen without a concomitant increase in the ventilatory equivalent for carbon dioxide or a change in the slope of the linear relationship between carbon-dioxide production (VCO 2 ) and VO 2 occurred. OUES was determined by the following equation: VO 2 =a logVE+b, where VE was minute ventilation and a was the OUES. Intertest reproducibility was assessed by coefficient of repeatability (COR). Results. The intertest reproducibility of VO 2 max and OUES were excellent (COR=570 ml/min [16%] and 740 [20%], respectively). VAT showed poor agreement between the two tests (COR=650 ml/min [31%]). Conclusions. Results show that OUES is reproducible and reliable, supporting the clinical usefulness of this index.

Evaluating a test protocol for predicting maximum lactate steady state.

Abstract: BACKGROUND Maximum lactate steady state (MLSS) is defined as the highest steady state exercise level one can maintain while also maintaining an equilibrium between the elimination of blood lactate and the diffusion of lactate into the blood. MLSS is an excellent tool for assessing fitness level, predicting endurance performance, and designing training programs. METHODS This investigation assesses the validity of the Lactate Minimum Test (LMT), which consists of inducing lactic acidosis through a VO2peak test, followed by an eight-minute walking recovery and an incremental exercise test, to determine if the running velocity associated with the minimum lactate value predicts the MLSS velocity. Following this LMT, two constant velocity 28-minute runs were performed, one at the predicted MLSS velocity (trial 1) and the other 0.13 m sec-1 (4-8%) above the predicted MLSS velocity (trial 2). Ten active female subjects participated (32 +/- 7 yrs (mean +/- SD); 65.7 +/- 16.4 kg; VO2peak 40.0 +/- 7.5 ml.kg-1.min-1). RESULTS During trial 1, there was a -0.6 +/- 0.3 mmol l-1 (mean +/- SE) change in lactate. Based on a definition of lactate steady state (LSS) as less than a 0.5 mmol.l-1 increase, this value signified LSS. A similar comparison during trial 2 revealed a 1.8 +/- 0.3 mmol.l-1 increase in lactate, signifying a workload above LSS and therefore confirming trial 1 as the maximum LSS (MLSS). CONCLUSIONS These results suggest that the test protocol accurately predicted the MLSS velocity.

Oral creatine supplementation improves multiple sprint performance in elite ice-hockey players.

Abstract: BACKGROUND The purpose of this study was to assess the effect of oral creatine monohydrate supplementation on multiple sprint cycle and skating performance in ice-hockey players. METHODS PARTICIPANTS sixteen elite ice-hockey players were selected as subjects. EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN subjects were randomly assigned to either a creatine (Cr) (n = 8) or a placebo (P) group (n = 8) in a double blind design. After familiarization and baseline tests, subjects loaded with 5 g of creatine monohydrate or placebo (glucose) four times per day for 5 days, after which a maintenance dose of 5 g per day for 10 weeks was administered. At baseline, and after 10 days and 10 weeks of supplementation, subjects performed i) a cycle test involving 5 all-out sprints of 15 sec duration separated by 15 sec recovery with the resistance set at 0.075 body mass (kg), and ii) 6 timed 80-m skating sprints with the sprints initiated every 30 sec and a split time taken at 47 m. RESULTS A two-way ANOVA demonstrated no significant change in any of the variables in the P group over the period of study. However, in the Cr group, average mean power output over the 5 sprints was significantly higher at 10 days (1074 +/- 241 W) and 10 weeks (1025 +/- 216 W) than at baseline (890 +/- 172 W), (p < 0.01). Average peak power output over the 5 sprints improved significantly from baseline (1294 +/- 311 W) to 10 days (1572 +/- 463 W), (p < 0.01). Average on-ice sprint performance to 47 m was significantly faster at 10 days (6.88 +/- 0.21 sec) and 10 weeks (6.96 +/- 0.19 sec) than at baseline (7.17 +/- 0.27 sec), (p < 0.005). CONCLUSIONS This study demonstrates that creatine supplementation has an ergogenic effect in elite ice-hockey players.

The effects of rest interval on quadriceps torque and perceived exertion in healthy males.

Abstract: BACKGROUND The ability to generate maximal muscular force is dependent upon time mediated mechanisms of fatigue. Interset rest interval length may not only affect force production but may also manifest changes in ratings of perceived exertion (RPE). The purpose of this study was to examine the effects of rest interval on quadriceps torque and RPE during multiple sets of resisted knee extensions. METHODS 14 healthy male volunteers were assessed for concentric isokinetic quadriceps peak torque, total work, and average power on the Biodex System II Isokinetic Dynamometer at a preset angular velocity of 180 deg.sec-1. Perceived exertion was measured with a modified category-ratio scale (CR-10). Under isometric conditions the perceptual range was anchored with one high and two low anchors. Subjects were randomly assigned to one of two groups: short rest interval (Group 1, 40 sec) and long rest interval (Group 2, 160 sec). All subjects performed 4 sets of 20 maximal isokinetic contractions with an inter-set rest interval that corresponded to their group assignment. Following the completion of each set subjects were asked to assign a rating out of 10 to the feelings in their quadriceps by visually observing a chart of the CR-10 scale. RESULTS The results demonstrated a significantly greater decline in quadriceps peak torque (p < 0.05), total work (p < 0.05), and average power (p < 0.05) by Group 1 as compared to Group 2. Changes in RPE across the 4 sets of exercise did not show a significant difference between the 2 groups. CONCLUSIONS The generation of quadriceps torque is a function of rest interval length, whereas perceived exertion appears to be unaffected.

A new predictive equation to calculate resting metabolic rate in athletes

Abstract: The purposes of the present study were: 1) to examine the accuracy and precision of seven published equations for predicting resting metabolic rate (RMR) in male athletes and 2) to develop a population-specific equation. Setting: The study occurred during a non-intensive training period. The measurements were performed at the Human Physiology laboratory. Participants: Fifty-one male athletes (22 waterpolo, 12 judo, 17 karate) who exercised regularly at least three hours per day. Measures: RMR was measured (mRMR) using indirect calorimetry (ventilated hood system). Besides, mRMR was compared with values predicted (pRMR) using equations of FAO/WHO/UNU, Harris and Benedict, Mifflin et al., Owen et al., Cunningham, Robertson and Reid, Fleisch. Statistical analyses. mRMR was compared with pRMR by means of Student's paired "t" tests, linear regression analysis and the Bland-Altman test. Relationships between mRMR and the different predictive variables were evaluated by Pearson correlation coefficients. The best subset was used to develop the predictive equation for RMR.

An examination of mood changes and performance in a professional basketball team.

Abstract: BACKGROUND: The purpose of this study was to examine the relationship between the Profile of Mood States (POMS) and performance in a professional basketball team. METHODS: Participants: seven male professional basketball players playing for the defending champions of the Israel Basketball League participated in this study. Experimental design: the POMS was administered seven times (T1-T7) during the season. The initial POMS administration was performed three weeks following the start of preseason practice and one day prior to the first basketball game. Each of the other POMS administrations were performed two days following a game and no more than 2 days before the next game. RESULTS: Typical iceberg profiles were observed during T1, T2 and T3, which coincided with successful performance (winning percentages greater than 60% between each POMS administration). Subsequent decreases in performance between T3 and T4 (a 33% winning percentage) resulted in a decrease in vigor and an increase in anger. As team performance improved between T4 and T5 (winning percentage again above 60%), vigor returned to its original level. However, the mood states anger and depression remained elevated, even during successful team play. This may have been related to problems independent of basketball performance (coaching and financial). CONCLUSIONS: These results suggest that the mood state vigor may be reflective of team performance. In addition, mood states appear to be influenced more by performance or experience, rather than performance being influenced by changes in mood states. Language: en

Emotions, heart rate and performance in archery. A case study.

Abstract: BACKGROUND: A case study of an elite female archer was conducted to gain insight into individual psychophysical reactions accompanying an athletic event, and to test predictions of pre-performance emotions effects upon performance. Good performance was expected when the actual pre-performance emotions resembled the recalled optimal emotion pattern. Conversely, poor performance was expected when the actual pre-performance emotions paralleled the recalled ineffective emotion pattern. METHODS: Experimental design: the investigation comprised individual emotion profiling, emotions and heart rate monitoring, final interview and performance evaluation. SETTING: The research was accomplished during the 1996 European Archery Championships, one of the most important international archery competitions. PARTICIPANT: An 18-year-old female athlete of the Italian archery national team. INTERVENTIONS: Because of the exploratory nature of the study, no intervention was implemented. MEASURES: Emotion profiling was carried out using an idiographic approach based on recalled optimal and poor performances, according to the Individual Zones of Optimal Functioning (IZOF) model. Emotions, heart rate, and performance were monitored across the five days of practice and competition. RESULTS: Individual pre-performance optimal emotion pattern, heart rate deceleration during shooting, consistent shooting scores were revealed throughout practice and competition. CONCLUSIONS: The good performance predicted on the basis of pre-performance emotion assessments was met and was confirmed by the archer's interpretation.

Regional and total body bone mineral density in elite collegiate male swimmers.

Abstract: Back,ground To examine the role of long-term swimming exercise on regional and total body bone mineral density (BMD) in men. Methods. Experimental design: Cross-sectional. Setting: Musculoskeletal research laboratory at a medical center, Participants:We compared elite collegiate swimmers (n=11) to age-, weight-, and height-matched non-athletic controls (n=11), Measures: BMD (g/cm(2)) of the lumbar spine L2-4, proximal femur (femoral neck, trochanter, Ward's triangle), total body and various subregions of the total body, as well as regional and total body fat and bone mineral-free lean mass (LM) was assessed by dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry (DXA, Hologic QDR 1000/W). Results. Swimmers, who commenced training at 10.7+/-3.7 yrs (mean+/-SD) and trained for 24.7+/-4.2 hrs per week, had a greater amount of LM (p<0.05), lower fat mass (p<0.001) and percent body fat (9.5 vs 16.2 %, p<0.001) than controls. There was no significant difference between groups for regional or total body BRID, In stepwise multiple regression analysis, body weight was a consistent independent predictor of regional and total body BMD, Conclusions. These results suggest that long-term swimming is not an osteogenic mode of training in college-aged males. This supports our previous findings in young female swimmers who displayed no bone mass benefits despite long-standing athletic training.

Immune responses to training: how critical is training volume?

Abstract: Background. If the volume of training undertaken is sufficient to induce a negative energy balance, the anticipated benefit of an enhanced immune response may be reduced or lost. Methods. 33 sedentary but healthy male volunteers aged 19-29 years, recruited from the university community. A peak oxygen intake measurement (cycle ergometer) and a 60-min exercise challenge at 60% of aerobic power were performed before and after 12 wk of treatment. Total leukocytes, subsets, CD3 + , CD4 + , CD8 + , CD16 + , CD19 + , and CD25 + counts (FACScan), cytolytic activity ( 51 Cr release) and cell proliferation (PHA and PWM) were measured, with subjects assigned arbitrarily to one of three groups: light training (18 subjects, aerobic exercise at 70-85% HRmax 3 times/wk), moderate training (9 subjects, similar programme 4-5 times/wk) and control (6 subjects). Results. Groups were initially well-matched in physical and physiological terms. Training increased aerobic power (8%, light, 21% moderate training), with a loss of body mass and fat in the moderate training group. Controls showed no changes. Resting CD16 + counts increased by 27% (light training) and CD16 + CD56 + counts by 21% (moderate training), with less post-exercise suppression of counts than at recruitment. Light training also decreased CD3 + and CD4 + counts without changing the CD4 + /CD8 + ratio. Moderate training decreased resting CD19 + count Conclusions. From the viewpoint of immune function, the optimal training regimen is of low volume. Moderate training sufficient to induce a negative energy balance yields a smaller increase in numbers of non-MHC-restricted cytotoxic cells, and carries the negative consequence of diminished B cell counts.

Exercise-induced muscle damage: absence of adaptive effect after a single session of eccentric isokinetic heavy resistance exercise.

Abstract: BACKGROUND Unaccustomed eccentric exercise induces muscle damage. A single session of eccentric exercise can induce an "adaptive effect" protecting exercised muscles during several weeks. Our aim was to verify this phenomenon in isokinetic exercise. Tested hypothesis was: the progressive muscle rise in tension due to isokinetic eccentric actions would be insufficient to induce the adaptive effect. METHODS EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN prospective study. SETTING general community. PARTICIPANTS six healthy and moderately active (untrained) males (29.1 yr +/- 1.5 SEM). INTERVENTIONS subjects performed two isokinetic eccentric exercises (EE1 and EE2) of the quadriceps femoris of both legs (120 degrees.s-1; 8 sets of 15 repetitions) separated by 4 weeks. MEASURES type I serum myosin heavy chains (MHC) and creatine kinase concentrations (CK), and rate of perceived soreness (DOMS) were collected before each exercise and on days 1, 2, 4, 6 and 9. RESULTS Both exercises induced significant (p < 0.01) increases in MHC and CK concentrations, and DOMS score. There was no significant difference between EE1 and EE2, at any measurement time for any parameter. Mean peak values (SEM) were respectively (EE1; EE2): MHC (microU.l-1): 308 (192); 285 (191). CK (U.l-1): 1217 (760); 1297 (1039). DOMS score: 2.67 (0.52); 2.33 (0.52). CONCLUSIONS The first session of eccentric isokinetic exercise (EE1) had no adaptive effect against muscle damage when an identical session was performed 4 weeks later (EE2). Muscle adaptation could have resulted in increased work production (+10.2%; p < 0.05; from EE1 to EE2).

In vitro apoptosis of lymphocytes after exposure to levels of corticosterone observed following submaximal exercise.

Abstract: Background, To evaluate the in vitro effects of corticosterone, equivalent to blood levels measured after a single submaximal treadmill exercise, on apoptosis and necrosis of mouse thymic and peripheral lymphocytes. Methods. Experimental design: analysis of variance with independent factors of time (0, 90, 210 minutes of incubation) and concentration of corticosterone (0, 150, 250, 450, 850 ng/ml). Measures : percentage of apoptotic, necrotic, and viable thymocytes and splenocytes determined by flow cytometry using Annexin V-FITC antibody and propidium iodide. Results. There was a significantly higher % of apoptotic thymocytes at 210 min at the higher corticosterone concentrations but not in % of apoptotic splenocytes at the same time point. For both lymphoid populations, corticosterone incubation was associated with a higher % of necrotic cells at 210 minutes but not at 0 or 90 minutes. For thymocytes, the interaction (time x concentration) was significant, with greater % necrosis observed at the lower (150 and 250 ng/ml) concentrations of corticosterone. Conclusions. The data suggest that in vitro exposure to corticosterone, at physiological concentrations (≤450 ng/ml) observed after a moderate exercise stress, induces apoptosis in thymocytes and necrosis in both thymocytes and splenocytes. The implications for exercise-mediated glucocorticoid regulation of immune function remain to be investigated.

Anthropometric dimensions to predict 1-RM bench press in untrained females.

Abstract: BACKGROUND Previous research has indicated a strong relationship between anthropometric dimensions and strength in males. To date, little work has been done to explore this topic in females. The purpose of this study was to determine the relationships between selected anthropometric dimensions and 1-RM bench press in untrained college females. METHODS Untrained college females (n = 113) were evaluated for 18 measured and seven derived anthropometric variables to predict 1-RM bench press strength. Triplicate measurements were averaged for five skinfolds, five circumferences, and six skeletal widths. Derived measurements included Body Mass Index, percent fat, fat-free mass (FFM), flexed arm cross-sectional area (CSA), shoulder width: hip width ratio, androgyny index, and somatotype. RESULTS Highest zero-order correlations with bench press were arm CSA (r = 0.45), flexed arm circumference (r = 0.45), mesomorphy (r = 0.44), and forearm circumference (r = 0.42). First-order partial correlations holding constant body mass or FFM generally decreased most correlations with bench press (r < 0.30). Factor loadings were used to produce muscle, length, and fat components which were placed in a multiple regression analysis to predict bench press but resulted in only limited success (R = 0.58, SEE = +/- 5.6 kg). Coefficients of variation (SEE/Mean x 100) for the equations ranged from was 18.9% to 21.0%. CONCLUSIONS Prediction of bench press strength from anthropometric dimensions does not appear to be practical or accurate in untrained females.

Temporal patterns of physical activity in Olympic dinghy racing.

Abstract: Background. The objective of the present study was to determine the temporal patterns of physical activity in four classes of Olympic racing dinghy. Methods. Experimental design: Descriptive. Setting: A field (on-water) study. Participants: Nineteen elite New Zealand sailors (fifteen male and four female). Intervention: Not applicable. Measures: The temporal pattern (duration and frequency) and nature of the physical activities of each sailor during each leg of simulated races were recorded on video tape and subsequently systematically quantified and categorised using notational analysis. The accumulated percentage of total leg time spent sitting (upright or leaning backwards), hiking (upright or fully extended) whilst trimming and whilst pumping the mainsheet and for the time spent on rig adjustments, tacking and gybing were calculated for both up-wind and off-wind sailing. Results. When sailing up-wind, the most time was spent hiking upright (average 29-66% of total leg time) while trimming the mainsheet. During off-wind sailing, sailors spent the most time sitting upright while trimming the mainsheet (average 29-55% total leg time). Hiking upright while trimming the mainsheet was executed the greatest number of times (average 15.8-23.9) when sailing up-wind and sitting upright while trimming was executed the most times (average 3.5-7.4) when sailing off-wind. The most lengthy continuous activity was hiking upright while trimming the mainsheet when sailing up-wind (9-18 seconds) and sitting upright while trimming the mainsheet when sailing off-wind (17-34 seconds). Conclusions. The most physically demanding aspect of Olympic yacht racing is hiking. It occurs for the majority of up-wind legs when the wind starts to exceed approximately 8 knots. The only respite that the sailor gets from hiking is during tacking, rig adjustments or sitting inboard for brief periods when the wind is low. Sustained hiking tends to last for no more than approximately 20 seconds before the sailor changes to either a more extended or more upright hiking posture. The physical demands during off-wind sailing are generally less, except for a greater requirement for power in the arms and shoulders to pump the mainsheet in order to assist the dinghy in accelerating down waves. The findings of the present study are directly applicable to the design of sailing specific physical conditioning programmes for Olympic class sailors.

Exercise-induced bronchospasm in nonasthmatic obese and nonobese boys.

Abstract: Background. In this study it was aimed to compare the degree and frequency of exercise-induced bronchospasm (EIB) in nonasthmatic obese boys with those in nonasthmatic nonobese boys. Methods. Participants: Fifty boys (24 obese and 26 control), aged 11 to 15 years, with no history of asthma or other atopic diseases, took part in the study. Measures: Anthropometric measurements and spirometry were performed at rest and spirometry was repeated at 5 and 15 minutes after an eight-minute submaximal exercise on cycle ergometer. Results. The falls in ratio of forced expiratory volume in one second (FEV 1 ) to forced vital capacity (FVC) and expiratory rates at 5 and 15 minutes after the exercise were significant in obese boys. Only significant change was the fall in FEV 1 /FVC at 5th minutes in controls. There was no significant difference between obese group and controls in the number of EIB-positive cases. Pulmonary function changes after the exercise had significant negative correlation with body mass index, subscapular and biceps skinfolds. Conclusions. Since the fall in pulmonary function was severe in obese boys and these falls were correlated with body mass index and skinfolds, it is concluded that diagnosis and management of EIB may improve aerobic exercise performance and participation in obese children.

The validity of ratings of perceived exertion for cross-modal regulation of swimming intensity.

Abstract: Background This study examined the use of Borg's category Ratings of Perceived Exertion (RPE) scale for prescribing and self-regulating swimming intensity. Subjects were males and females (n = 19) ages nineteen to fifty-eight who regularly swam for fitness. Experimental designs Subjects completed six trials. Each trial was separated by a minimum of forty-eight hours. Mean cycle ergometry heart rates at estimated RPE-overall 12 and 16 were compared to mean swimming heart rates at produced RPE-overall 12 and 16. Also, mean arm ergometry heart rates at estimated RPE-arms 12 and 16 were compared to mean swimming heart rates at produced RPE-arms 12 and 16. Cycling and arm ergometry anchor trials familiarized subjects with testing protocol and Borg's scale prior to estimation and production trials. Comparisons were made using a one-way ANOVA (alpha 0.05). Results Mean cycling heart rate at RPE-overall 16 was not significantly different from mean swimming heart rate at RPE-overall 16. Mean swimming heart rate was significantly greater than cycling heart rate at RPE-overall 12. Mean swimming heart rates at RPE-arms 12 and 16 were significantly greater than arm ergometry heart rates at RPE-arms 12 and 16. Conclusions Results suggest that RPE-overall 16 may be useful in prescribing a higher exercise intensity for swimmers. However, adjustments from RPE-overall 12 are needed for establishing a lower intensity. Additionally, arm ergometry-based RPEs may require adjustments to be effective in prescribing and regulating swimming intensity. Results suggest that cycling and arm ergometry anchored RPE responses should be used with discretion when prescribing and regulating swimming intensity.

The cardiovascular work of competitive dinghy sailing.

Abstract: Background. Hiking is the special manoeuvre, which the dinghy sailor uses to counterbalance the capsizing effect of the wind on the boat. In the present research the work required of the heart by this exercise was studied in the laboratory using a boat simulator. Methods. Seven Laser male sailors selected from those in the first places in the junior national rank participated in this study. Their endurance, at different levels of isometric hiking efforts, was measured. Energy expenditure due to hiking was estimated from measurements of oxygen consumption, carbon dioxide elimination and blood lactate concentration. The cardiac load was evaluated by measuring blood pressure using the conventional method and heart rate measured by electrocardiography. Cardiac output was measured using the CO 2 re-breathing method. Left ventricular work was then calculated as cardiac output multiplied by mean arterial pressure. Results. The most relevant result was that, while whole body cost of hiking was relatively low (about 1 l O 2 min -1 ), the power of the heart was very significant cardiac output almost doubled with respect to that at rest and arterial mean pressure rose from 12.5 kPa (rest) to 18.5 kPa (hiking). Thus, left ventricular power rose from 1.2 Watt to 3.2 Watt, which is a typical cardiovascular response to muscular isometric contraction. Conclusions. These results assume relevance when a person's eligibility for sailing sports is evaluated.

Physical activity level during a round of golf on a hilly course.

Abstract: Background Regular physical activity plays a role in preventive medicine. Our study aimed at establishing the duration of different levels of exercise intensity during a round of golf. Participants we studied 21 male and 9 female golfers (mean age 53 +/- 11 and 54 +/- 13 years respectively) volunteering for a round of golf on a hilly course. Measures we recorded mean heart rate (HR) of every 15 seconds. Blood pressure was taken on each tee. Maximum HR (HRmax) reserve of each subject was calculated from the difference between pre-exercise and maximum HR attained during a test to volitional exhaustion on a cycle ergometer. A percentage of this value was added to the resting HR and was expressed as a percentage of HRmax reserve. Results Before start mean HR (+/- SD) was 86 +/- 11 beats per minute (BPM), during play 113 +/- 18, and during rest after play 100 +/- 24 BPM. Mean maximal HR of holes were 135 +/- 21 BPM. Mean systolic blood pressure was 145 +/- 30 before play, 137 +/- 31 on tees during play and 119 +/- 15 mmHg after play. A mean of 82 +/- 51 minutes was spent at 50-74% of HRmax reserve. 21 +/- 27 and 23 +/- 38 minutes were spent in the two higher intensity classes. An average of 106 +/- 77 minutes were spent at or above the individual heart rate equivalent of 100 W, the mean heart rate for this time was 128 +/- 17 BPM. Creatine kinase (+47%; p Conclusions The HR level during the golfround not using an electric cart relative to the maximum attained on the ergometer reaches the exercise intensity of 50 to > 85% HRmax reserve for a mean of over 2 hours, much longer than the 20-60 min recommended for endurance training.