Showing papers in "Psychophysiology in 1969"

Heart rate and somatic changes during aversive conditioning and a simple reaction time task

Abstract: Four experiments are reported, all of which are concerned with evaluating in human Ss the relationship between the deceleration of heart rate, observed to anticipate both aversive and non-aversive stimuli, and several aspects of somatic-motor activity. In a simple reaction time task, a decrease in spontaneous bursts of EMG activity and both respiration amplitude and frequency were found to be concomitant with the deceleration of heart rate during the foreperiod and to be directly correlated with reaction time. The decrease in anticipatory somatic activity to an aversive stimulus was found in a second experiment to extend to spontaneous eye movements and blinks, which also had a marked concomitance with the anticipatory deceleration of heart rate. However, experimentally imposed somatic activity, i.e. continuous finger tapping, increased in intensity around the time the UCS was expected. A third experiment provided additional evidence that the anticipatory cardiac deceleration to aversive stimuli was not mediated significantly by respiratory maneuvers. Finally, evidence was provided that the basis for the spontaneous EMG bursts may be related to somatic responses elsewhere in the body, such as postural adjustments.

Autonomic response patterns during sadness and mirth

Abstract: Autonomic responses were recorded from three groups of subjects as they viewed a sadness-inducing film, a comedy film, or a control film. Psychological reactions indicated that the stimulus films were effective in eliciting sadness and mirth. Physiologically, sympathetic activation was common to both emotions, with cardiovascular changes being more prominent during sadness and respiratory changes more characteristic of mirth. The relevance of these findings for the investigation of differential physiological patterning during emotion is discussed, and an hypothesis is presented concerning the biological significance of grief.

To what does the orienting response respond

Abstract: Forty-eight Ss received 10 repetitive 1-sec light presentations at either 5 or 25 foot candles (ft c), followed by a switch on Trial 11. After approximately 2 months the experiment was repeated. Of 34 Ss who correctly described the stimulus change on initial testing, only 18 gave a (GSR) OR. On retest, most Ss retained their characteristic response, but previously responsive 25 5 ft c. Ss became non-responsive on Trial 11. There were no differences between OR-responders and non-responders to Trial 1 flash though responders subsequently took longer to habituate and made more ORs overall. There was no difference in base admittance (BAL) increase following initial onset of stimulation, but OR-responders subsequently showed a continuing BAL rise while nonresponders returned to resting levels. The OR is not an automatic accompaniment to perceptible stimulus novelty. A 2-stage process was hypothesized in triggering an OR, stressing the role of cognitive-motivational variables.

The effects of different exposures to augmented sensory feedback on the control of heart rate.

Abstract: The aim of this experiment was to determine the effect of different exposures to augmented sensory feedback of heart rate performance on the development of voluntary control of heart rate. Three groups of five Ss each received augmented sensory feedback on 100%, 50%, or 0% of training trials respectively. The amount of heart rate control exhibited by Ss was observed to be a direct function of the percentage of training trials on which feedback was given. Respiration rate changes were not systematically influenced by this variable although higher respiration rates were consistently associated with high heart rates and lower respiration rates with low heart rates.

Feedback technique for deep relaxation.

Abstract: Zero firing or single-motor-unit firing in large forearm muscle bundles was achieved in less than twenty minutes, in seven out of twenty-one subjects, through the use of a feedback meter which showed the subject his own electromyographic tension level. Five of these seven subjects reported body-image illusions. The behavior of single motor units under these conditions indicates the existence of a reflex-type neural oscillator in the striate neuromuscular domain, whose operation is gated or controlled from the central nervous system. The electronic system needed to operate the feedback meter can be assembled from standard amplifiers but standard EMG Integrator (rectifier) couplers usually must be modified in order to detect single motor unit firing. The final system is considerably more sensitive than those commercially available.

Cortical evoked potentials to semantic stimuli

Abstract: The influence of affective meaning on the photically evoked response was studied in male college students. Three sets of stimuli were used: taboo words, neutral words, and blank flashes. Two blocks of trials were run for each stimulus, one in which the S responded by calling the stimulus presented, and a second in which the S was not required to respond. The late components of the evoked potential were significantly related to both the stimulus and response conditions. Amplitude 2 was larger for the taboo words than for either the neutral words or the blank flash. The taboo words had a significantly greater amplitude 3 than neutral words, and both sets of words had higher amplitude 3 than the blank flash. The stimulus effect was discussed in terms of the possible influence of anatomical structures involved in emotional behavior on the visual evoked response. The response effect was felt to be the result of the increased attention required under the response condition.

Discrimination among states ofconsciousness using eeg spectra

Abstract: EEG recordings were made during waking (W) and the five sleep stages (REM, 1, 2, 3, and 4) on thirteen young adult males. For each stage, one-minute sections of the pa ietal EEG trace were digitized and subjected to Fourier analysis. The resulting spectral intensities were divided into five frequency bands; delta, theta, alpha, sigma, and beta. Linear discriminators for all six stages were calculated using stepwise multiple regression. The overall percent agreement with visual scoring was very poor, ranging from zero for stage 3 to 91% for stage 4. Linear discrimination between pairs of stages yielded slightly better results, but stages 1 and REM were indistinguishable. Delta is the best overall discriminator, increasing significantly through stages W, 1, 2, 3, and 4. Sigma is unique to sleep and is highest for stage 2. Theta is unimportant and beta plays no role at all. Spectral analysis of the parietal EEG lead is not sufficient to differentiate among the six states of consciousness studied here. The use of detectors for such phasic events as eye movement and K-complexes might aid sleep stage discrimination considerably.

The auditory evoked response to repeated stimuli during a vigilance task

Abstract: The auditory evoked response was measured between the vertex and left ear in 9 Ss. In an extension of the idea of the recovery function, series of tones, including sets of 5 tone pips with ½, 1, or 2 sec between them, and 11 sec between sets, were presented, while Ss were instructed to press a button whenever there was a change in tone length. Because of the slow recovery of this response, no subtraction procedure was necessary. There were 6 runs representing 6 experimental conditions for each S. Habituation within runs was not observed, but there was significant habituation between rims in spite of a constant vigilance level. The evoked responses to the second and subsequent stimuli of each set were much smaller than to the first, depending on the interstimulus interval within sets. Evoked responses to 65 db stimuli were less than to 85 db, but showed proportionally the same changes with successive stimuli.

“augmenting” and “reducing” in averaged visual evoked responses to sine wave light

Abstract: It has been reported that the change in averaged visual evoked response (VER) amplitude with change in light flash intensity is related to a measure of kinesthetic figural after effects. It has also been reported that in some subjects, the amplitude of VER to sine wave light may decrease as depth of modulation approaches 100%. This study attempted to examine the change in VER amplitude resulting from change in depth of sine wave modulation on the one hand, and a measure of kinesthetic figural after effects (referred to as the bar test) on the other. The VER amplitudes to the six depths of modulation were plotted as a ftmction of depth of modulation, and the slope of that function served as an index of VER “augmentation” and “reduction.” The bar test was also scored to yield an index of kinesthetic “augmentation” and “reduction.” There was a rank correlation of .66 (p < .01 for N = 30) between VER slopes and bar test scores. Test-retest values for eleven subjects show that VER slopes and bar scores changed together and that order of test day apparently had no regular effect. The administration of phenylephrine to dilate pupils produced a steeper VER slope, that is, a greater “augmentation,” in all six subjects tested. These results are discussed in terms of a general stimulus intensity control mechanism which influences sensory responsivity across modalities.

Unilateral brain damage and bilateral skin conductance levels in humans.

Abstract: Left and right, palmar and dorsal skin conductance levels (SCLs) were obtained from hospital controls, left hemisphere lesion Ss, right hemisphere lesion Ss, and diffuse or bilateral lesion Ss during several experimental conditions involving rest, passive auditory stimulation, motor reactions, and simple “perception”. The unilateral lesion groups generally displayed significantly higher palmar SCLs on the side contralateral to their lesion. Such “laterality” was not demonstrated in dorsal recordings or in the hospital controls or diffuse lesion group. These unilateral lesion groups had higher palmar SCLs during passive stimulation than during rest, motor, or perception phases. Results were discussed in terms of possible neural mechanisms underlying the phenomena.

Anticipatory and preparatory electrodermal behavior in paired stimulation situations.

Abstract: Electrodermal indicators of anticipation and preparation accompanying paired stimulation are divided into three classes: (1) features of responding between onsets of the stimuli; (2) changes in response to the second stimulus which occur only when the first stimulus is present; and (3) responses at the point where the response to the second stimulus would occur but which are observed in the absence of the second stimulus. The first two classes are elaborated here. Two experiments explore responses in the interstimulus interval. The number of such responses, their probability of occurrence, and the magnitudes of changes, identified either by ordinal number of occurrence or latency, all show differential behavior in the form of reinforcement effects (pairing vs nonpairing) and trace-delay conditioning differences. Preparatory responses of the second class are illustrated by phenomena from conditioning studies, namely UCR diminution and perceptual disparity responding. The data are interpreted as demonstrating the signal character of the first stimulus which sets or prepares the individual for receipt of the second stimulus.

Cephalic vasomotor and heart rate measures oe orienting and deeensive reelexes

Abstract: The problem of differentiating orienting (OR) and defensive reflexes (DR) was investigated by measurements of forehead-skin pulse amplitude (PA), forehead-skin blood content (BC), and heart rate (HR). Thirty male college students received 30 stimulations of .5 sec white noise at either 80 db or 120 db. Beat-by-beat analyses of the physiological measures indicated that both intensities of stimulation produced decreases in PA. Forehead BC showed larger increases to 120 db than to 80 db, and successive stimulations produced a change to overall decreases in BC at both intensities. HR acceleration occurred to both stimuli, and a short-latency deceleration occurred to 80 db. The results were interpreted as showing that cephalic vasoconstriction is the dominant response to auditory stimulation, and cephalic vasomotor responses do not differentiate between ORs and DRs. The short-latency HR deceleration and smaller HR acceleration differentiated the OR from the DR.

Social responding in dogs: heart rate changes to a person.

Abstract: This paper reports the variable conditional effects of a person on the heart rate of nine mongrel dogs. There were three experimental procedures: person present and playing a passive role, person present and playing an active role (petting the dog), and person present and serving as a signal for forthcoming electrical stimulation. The order of presentation of these conditions was counterbalanced with dogs assigned randomly to one of three orders of procedures. Each procedure consisted of 50 trials (exposures to a human). On each trial, the person entered the conditioning room and stood motionless for 40 sec. The petting and shock reinforcements occurred 40 sec after the person entered the room, enabling the study of conditional heart rate changes in the interval from appearance of the person to reinforcement. Heart rate changes varied with the “meaning” of the person, and the rates from high to low were in the order: person serving as a signal for subsequent punishment, person alone, and person serving as a signal for subsequent petting. It was stressed that an experimenter could have marked and varied social-psychophysiological effects upon the individuals being studied, and that in any experiment it is necessary to properly evaluate these effects.

Effects of attention and activation on the visual evoked cortical potential and reaction time.

Abstract: In the present study an attempt has been made to assess the relative contributions of arousal and attentional factors affecting the amplitude of the visual evoked cortical potential and reaction time latency. Subjects were studied under the following four conditions: (1) passively watching a small, dim, intermittent flash; (2) reacting to each flash by releasing a lever, thereby giving a reaction time; (3) reacting to each flash within a specified period of time in order to avoid an uncomfortable shock to the fingers; (4) reacting to each flash while receiving occasional unavoidable shock. Statistical analyses revealed that the evoked potentials recorded during the avoidable shock condition (3) were significantly larger than during the other three conditions. Reaction times were routinely shorter during condition 3, followed by the no-shock (2) and then unavoidable shock (4) conditions.

Visual evoked responses in subjects trained to control alpha rhythms

Abstract: Averaged visual evoked responses (AER) to sine wave light and to light flashes were recorded in seven subjects trained to control alpha rhythms. All seven subjects demonstrated a greater AER amplitude to sine wave light when there was high or abundant alpha in the EEG than when the alpha was low or almost entirely absent. Two of the early waves of the flash AER were usually greater in amplitude during periods of high alpha. A cycloplegic agent was shown to have no effect upon this finding, nor did varying the frequency of sine wave light stimulation. Period analysis of the EEG showed more activity at both low and high frequency bands during periods of low alpha. Auditory evoked response amplitudes were not significantly different between the high and low background alpha conditions. These results were discussed in relation to current views correlating AERs with attentive states.

Cardiac activity during experimentally induced anxiety.

Abstract: Three studies are reported in which subjects (Ss) were instructed to watch a sequence of numbers appear on a memory drum and, after base-level determinations of cardiac and respiratory activity, were told to expect an aversive stimulus at a specific point in the number sequence. Subjects typically showed an acceleration in cardiac rate early in the number series and a deceleration just prior to and during the expected locus of shock. The acceleration was found to be greater for Ss told to expect strong shock than for those told to expect weak shock, greater for those receiving strong shock than those receiving weak shock, and under all conditions the acceleration decreased as a function of the number of shocks received. The deceleration, however, remained essentially constant across both trials and conditions and also occurred in groups told merely to expect a weak tone or a faint click. It appears that the acceleration may be a component of an anxiety response but the deceleration appears to occur under the present conditions in anticipation of any stimulation.

Cortical slow potential changes in man related to interstimulus interval and to pre trial prediction of interstimulus interval

Abstract: Two experiments were performed to explore further the relationship between the cortical slow potential change known as the “contingent negative variation” (CNV) and the concept of “expectancy.” In Experiment I, 24 male Ss were presented click pairs, with inter-click intervals of 800, 1600 and 4800 msec (2 blocks of 10 trials each, counterbalanced between Ss for order), and instructed to press a key after the second click. Interval by order by trials analysis of variance showed interval to be the only significant factor: CNVs were lower and RTs longer as interval increased. In Experiment II, 8 female Ss given 60 pairs of clicks, 30 each with separations of 1200 and 2400 msec, were instructed to respond as in Experiment I, and were asked to make a pretrial prediction of the interval they would next receive. Analysis of variance of RTs showed that Ss responded slower when the interval was other than that predicted. Prediction by reception by subjects analysis of variance of CNV amplitude at the 1200 msec point gave a significant F only for prediction, mean amplitude for short being higher than for long. A similar design applied to CNV amplitudes at both the 1200 and 2400 msec points when Ss received the long interval yielded a significant measurement point by interval predicted interaction; at the 1200 msec point, short predictions were followed by higher CNVs than were long predictions; at 2400 msec, the opposite was found. These data combine with those already in the literature to indicate that the relationship between “expectancy” and the CNV is far from simple, and that cognitive and motivational factors play a significant role in determining CNV amplitude.

Transient changes in eeg sleep patterns of married good sleepers: the effects of altering sleeping arrangement

Abstract: The major purposes of this study were to test the effects of altering the typical home sleeping arrangement on subsequent laboratory sleep, to determine the nature of transient disturbances in EEG sleep patterns of habitual good sleepers, and to explore sex differences in sleep patterns of married couples. Twenty-eight married good sleepers slept three consecutive nights in the laboratory under both sleep-with-spouse and sleep-alone conditions. Continuous EEG and eye movement recordings were obtained throughout the seven hour bed period. Analyses of variance showed a significant increase in the amount of Stage 4 sleep and a significant decrease in REM sleep under the sleep-alone condition. Transient changes in sleep patterns of good sleepers were not associated with the usual correlates of poor sleep. Sex differences showed females with significantly more Stage 4 sleep, more total sleep, and fewer awakenings. It was concluded that the typical home sleeping arrangement may be a significant subject-selection variable in sleep and dream research. The major findings were discussed within the framework of a cortical homeostasis hypothesis.

Central efferent processes and autonomic‐behavioral integration

Abstract: Neurophysiological and psychophysiological studies have provided a substantial amount of data concerning the integration of autonomic and somatic responses. It is clear that this integration is primarily achieved within the central nervous system and that coordinated autonomic-behavioral activity is reflected, at the periphery, in the anticipatory and preparatory phases of movement. It is suggested that the central efferent organization of these preparatory responses is directly responsible for emotional experience. The demonstration that autonomic events are highly correlated with behavioral responses is regarded as providing further support for the view that the primary concern of the central nervous system is the production of adaptive behavior.

Inter-rater reliability and the role of experience in scoring eeg sleep records: phase 1.

Abstract: The purpose of this study was to measure the reliability of scoring all-night EEG sleep records. To determine the amount of inter-rater agreement of scoring EEG sleep stages, 28 raters from 14 different sleep laboratories scored the same 398 minute sleep record. Statistical analyses showed varying amounts of inter-rater agreement across sleep stages with St. REM showing the highest reliability and delta stages the least inter-rater agreement. A comparison of raters with High, Medium, and Low experience revealed lower within-group variability for Stages 1, 2, 3, and 4 for the more experienced raters. It was concluded that increased reliability and comparability of results could be obtained readily by increased standardization of recording techniques and scoring criteria.

Effects of a task-relevant response on pupil size.

Abstract: This experiment examined the effects on pupil size of the relevance of an overt response to a cognitive task Sixteen Ss were assigned to two experimental groups In one group Ss were required to judge the pitch equality of tones and, subsequently, indicate their decision by pressing or not pressing a telegraph key In the other group Ss were required to make the pitch-discriminations, but the key press response was unrelated to the preceding cognitive task Continuous photographs of each S's pupil were taken during the experiment Results showed that a small amount of pupillary dilation occurred during the discrimination task in the group where the key press was irrelevant to the pitch-discrimination In the group where S's behavior indicated task fulfillment, however, a significantly greater increase in pupil size occurred, the amount of dilation being larger when task completion was indicated by the key press response than when fulfillment was indicated by no key press The findings were discussed in terms of arousal associated with apprehension about evaluation, and muscle tension from anticipation of making the overt response

The influence of evening activity on the onset of sleep.

Abstract: Sleep onset following three kinds of evening activities was investigated. These activities were six hours of strenuous physical work, six hours of intensive studying and mental work, and six hours of relaxation, i.e., watching TV, listening to records and reading magazines. Ss were 15 young men, each of whom participated in one activity per night for three non-consecutive nights. Results showed that studying delayed sleep onset by an average of about six minutes, but Ss took similar times to fall asleep after exercise and after relaxation. At the moment of sleep onset, heart rate, respiratory rate, rectal temperature and peripheral pulse volume all were significantly elevated after exercise, when compared to studying and relaxation. Both of these results combined were interpreted as indicating that the level of physiological, systemic activity is relatively unimportant for sleep onset, while the level of mental stimulation seems to play a more important role.

Dreams of subjects with loss of memory for recent events

Abstract: Dreams of six subjects with postencephalitic complete loss of memory for recent events were compared to dreams of control subjects with intact memory. The incidence of dreams decreased with the memory defect. Furthermore, the dreams were shorter, simpler, reality bound, lacked daily residue and emotional depth, and followed secondary-thought-type logic. They were stereotyped and repetitious. Instead of symbolically elaborated new attempted solutions for recent conflicts, these dreams contained the memory of events the subjects experienced before the onset of the memory defect. In each instance, the remembered event once offered a relief for a physiological need, similar to the one that precipitated the dream. Assuming that the mechanism of dreaming remains intact in these subjects with permanent memory loss for recent events, the results suggest that dreams of subjects with intact memory combine two processes: 1) a sensory stimulus of internal origin (e.g., an organic need) may serve as a decoding signal resulting in retrieval of an old memory trace; and 2) processes connected with perception and encoding the memory of recent events contribute the daily residue and the newly created symbolic elaboration of the daily residue, and old memory traces under an emotional impact.

Heart rate conditioning in the cat and its relationship to other physiological responses.

Abstract: Twenty cats were classically conditioned using electric shock as the unconditional stimulus (US). A 1000 cps tone served as the reinforced conditional stimulus (CS+) and a 500 cps tone as the non-reinforced conditional stimulus (CS–). The CS–US interval was 10 seconds. Data collected show a heart rate deceleration to the CS+ which is accompanied by a drop in blood pressure, respiratory apnea, a negative baseline shift of the galvanic skin potential (GSP), pupillary dilatation, a decrease of the electromyographic (EMG) activity of the muscles of the shocked foreleg, and a low voltage fast pattern of the electroencephalographic (EEG) activity of the sigmoid gyrus of the cerebral cortex and olfactory bulb. The heart rate deceleration is present after muscle paralysis with succinyl choline and it is blocked by atropine. It is presumed to be of vagal origin. Difference in CS+ and US responsivity is discussed.

Stimulus repetition rate factors which influence the auditory evoked potential in man

Abstract: The slow component of the auditory evoked potential in man was investigated under various conditions which produced an increase in stimulus repetition rate. The left ear received a 1000 Hz tone once each 5 sec. Intervening stimuli, also of 1000 Hz, were presented to (1) the right ear, (2) both ears, and (3) the left ear. Their relative influence on response amplitude to periodic left ear stimulation was evaluated. The results indicated that: (1) intervening right ear stimulation reduced significantly response amplitude to left ear stimulation; (2) presenting the intervening stimuli to both ears simultaneously caused no further decrement in response amplitude; (3) presenting the intervening stimuli to the left ear alone brought about a further and significant decrease in response amplitude to left ear stimulation. These findings imply that habituation of the auditory evoked potential is greatest when the same pattern of neural activity is repeatedly initiated. When the intervening stimuli elicit a different pattern of neural excitation, habituation is less, even though stimulation rate remains unchanged.

Skin potential levels in right- and left-handed males.

Abstract: From twelve left-handed and twelve right-handed males, skin potential levels were recorded simultaneously from both sides of the body. In both groups significantly higher skin potential levels were found on the right side. Unilateral stimuli and handedness did not unilaterally affect maximum response level.

Effects of stimulus order and novelty on orienting responses.

Abstract: The effects of stimulus order and novelty upon habituation and dishabituation of the GSR component of the OR were investigated. The numbers 21 to 60 were presented in serial order (Ordered-Novel group), and in random order (Random-Novel group), and the number 21 was repeated 40 times (Similar group). The number 600 was occasionally interpolated among each series. No group differences in magnitude of OR to the first stimulus or in habituation of the OR during the series of numbers were found. Dishabituation due to the interpolated stimulus was found primarily in the Similar group. The results were related to Sokolov's concept of neuronal models used in his theory of habituation.

The heart rate response to a brief auditory and visual stimulus

Abstract: The adult heart rate (HR) response was studied in 18 male subjects following a series of 10 tones and 10 light flashes. Both stimuli were of moderate intensity (54 db and 8.0 ml) and had rise times of 30 milliseconds. The tone evoked a predominantly acceleratory response and no decrement with repetition. Initially, the light flash evoked a predominantly deceleratory response which changed to one of acceleration as the stimulus was repeated. Analysis of respiration revealed that an increase in rate and amplitude followed both stimuli and that the magnitude of respiratory changes did not diminish with stimulus repetition. Viewed according to Sokolov's criteria for identifying orienting, defensive, and adaptive responses the results support the conclusions that: (1) HR deceleration is a component of the orienting response; and (2) HR acceleration is neither an orienting, defensive, nor adaptive response but is largely secondary to respiratory changes. On the basis of the evidence, a tentative model of the HR response to simple auditory and visual stimuli is offered.

Habituation of the orienting response to multiple stimulus sequences

Abstract: The purpose of the study was to test the hypothesis that rate of habituation of the orienting response (OR) to multiple stimulus sequences is a negative function of the uncertainty (H) in the stimulus series. Seven groups of 30 Ss received 10 presentations of a 10 sec light stimulus (S1) followed immediately by a 1 sec 70 db auditory stimulus (S2) on 0, 10, 20, 50, 80, 90 or 100 percent of trials. The response measure was change of skin conductance to S1. Mean conductance change scores of the various groups were closely related to the degree of uncertainty (H) in the stimulus series. The results were interpreted as offering support for Sokolov's OR theory, and the view that, in human information processing, information concerning stimulus probabilities is integrated continuously to form the basis of predictive extrapolation.

Generalization of GSR habituation to mild intramodal stimuli.

Abstract: Subjects habituated to a mild stimulus failed to have GSRs upon the intrusion of a “novel” mild intramodal stimulus. However, an intruding intermodal stimulus of approximately the same intensity caused large GSRs. These results support an explanation based on expectancy or the “neuronal model” of Sokolov, provided suitable allowance is made for changes in specificity of the model as a result of variations in the experimental situation.