Showing papers in "School Psychology Review in 2001"

Meta-Analysis of Grade Retention Research: Implications for Practice in the 21st Century.

Abstract: Retaining a child at grade level has become increasingly popular, consis- tent with the emphasis on accountability and standards in elementary education. This article provides a comprehensive review of the research examining the aca- demic and socioemotional outcomes associated with grade retention. Following a brief historical overview of previously published literature reviews, a summary of studies published between 1990 and 1999 is provided. A systematic review and meta-analysis of 20 recent studies includes: outcome variables (i.e., achievement and socioemotional adjustment), age or grade of retained population, matched or controlled for variables in analyses with comparison groups, and the overall con- clusion regarding the efficacy of grade retention. Results of recent studies and this meta-analysis are consistent with past literature reviews from the 1970s and 1980s. In addition to a summary of the results, the discussion addresses the disparity between educational practice and converging research regarding grade retention and suggests directions for practice. This review encourages researchers, educa- tional professionals, and legislators to abandon the debate regarding social promo- tion and grade retention in favor of a more productive course of action in the new millennium.

Using Curriculum-based Measurement to Establish Growth Standards for Students with Learning Disabilities

Abstract: The purpose of this article is to illustrate how one well-developed, technically strong measurement system, curriculum-based measurement (CBM), can be used to establish academic growth standards fo

Functional Behavioral Assessment: Principles, Procedures, and Future Directions.

Abstract: Through amendments to the Individuals With Disabilities Education Act (IDEA), federal law mandated the use of functional behavioral assessments (FBA) and positive behavioral support plans to addres...

Predicting Student Success on a State-Mandated Performance-Based Assessment Using Oral Reading Fluency.

Abstract: . One hundred seventy-three fourth graders were administered curriculum-based oral reading fluency measures in September, January, and May. A growth curve analysis was conducted to determine the relationship between students' slope in oral reading fluency and the Washington Assessment of Student Learning (WASL) reading assessment, which was administered in May. Slope in oral reading fluency across the school year and the oral reading fluency probes administered in September, January, and May reliably predicted May WASL reading performance. Follow-up analyses showed statistically reliable cut-scores based on students' oral reading fluency performance in September, January, and May. Based on these cut-scores, the positive predictive power that September oral reading fluency low scores predicted WASL failure was .41, and the negative predictive power that September oral reading fluency high scores predicted WASL success was .90. These rates are higher than the WASL failure base rate of 20% and the WASL p ass base rate of 80% found in this sample. The clinical utility of using these procedures is discussed. Reflecting nationwide movement towards educational reform, a national consortium of educators from various states has met for the past 4 years to discuss progress in the use of alternative service delivery (Tilly, 1999; see Ysseldyke & Marston, 1998, for a description of some state alternative service initiatives). The initiatives in alternative service delivery are due to the commitment that all students who have unmet educational needs should receive services rather than depend on qualification for special education to ensure educational services (e.g., National Association of State Directors of Special Education [NASDE], 1994; Reschly & Ysseldyke, 1995). Alternative service delivery relies on functional assessment using problem-solving procedures (e.g., NASDSE, 1998). In short, students with academic or social/emotional difficulties are referred to a building assistance team that uses the problem-solving process to identify the problem. Problem analysis is used to pinpoint the specific skill that is lackin g or the environmental determinants of the problem behavior. Then, an intervention and goal are devised, and progress monitoring is used to determine the student's progress towards the goal over time. The alternative assessment tools used during this process include curriculum-based measurement (e.g., Shinn, 1989, 1998), curriculum-based evaluation (e.g., Howell & Nolet, 2000), and behavioral consultation (e.g., Bergan & Kratochwill, 1990). In the state of Washington education reform has led, among other things, to the establishment of the Essential Academic Learning Requirements in reading, writing, communications, and mathematics. Performance "benchmarks" were established for three grade levels: 4th, 7th, and 10th. The Washington Assessment of Student Learning (WASL) was developed to measure attainment of the benchmarks (Taylor, 1998). Students are tested in 4th, 7th, and 10th grade with the state-mandated tests. Students who do not pass the state assessment in the 10th grade will not earn a certificate of mastery. To facilitate student learning, the Office of the Superintendent of Public Instruction also required the professional education preparation programs to incorporate curriculum that teaches preservice educators the state-mandated Essential Academic Learning Requirements. In addition, the Office of the Superintendent of Public Instruction required school psychology training programs to prepare a document that outlined how preservice sc hool psychologists would be trained so that they will support teachers in ensuring that all students pass the state-mandated assessment. The University of Washington School Psychology Program described training that utilizes some of the foundations used in the alternative service delivery model described above (Stage, 1999). The potential of the alternative service delivery model to support teachers in helping students pass the WASL is significant. …

A Reliability and Validity Study of the Dynamic Indicators of Basic Early Literacy Skills—Modified

Abstract: . This study examined the psychometric properties of a set of preliteracy measures modified from the Dynamic Indicators of Basic Early Literacy Skills (DIBELS) with a sample of 75 kindergarten students. The modified battery (called DIBELS-M) includes measures of Letter Naming Fluency, Sound Naming Fluency, Initial Phoneme Ability, and Phonemic Segmentation Ability. These measures were assessed through repeated administrations in 2-week intervals at the end of the kindergarten year. Interrater reliability estimates and coefficients of stability and equivalence for three of the measures ranged from .80 to the mid .90s with about one-half of the coefficients above .90. Correlations between DIBELSM scores and criterion measures of phonological awareness, standardized achievement measures, and teacher ratings of achievement yielded concurrent validity coefficients ranging from .60 to .70. Hierarchical regression analysis showed that the four DIBELS-M measures accounted for 73% of the variance in scores on the Skills Cluster of the Woodcock-Johnson Psychoeducational Battery--Revised (WJ-R). The results of the analysis support the use of the DIBELS-M measures for identification of kindergarten students who are at-risk for reading failure and for progress monitoring. The contributions of the study, including psychometric analysis of the DIBELS-M with a new sample and formation of composite scores, are discussed in relation to the extant literature. Within the current climate of school reform initiatives, alternative assessment methods have been widely promoted in the field of education (Bagnato, Neisworth, & Munson, 1989; Miller, 1995). This pressure for changes in the nature of assessments has grown from the assumption that good assessment is an integral part of good instruction and that conventional child assessments do not yield instructionally relevant information (Herman, Aschbacher, & Winters, 1992). The pressure for changes in assessment practices for very young children has been more pronounced than for older school-aged students because of the limited technical adequacy of current developmental and readiness instruments (Drieling & Copeland, 1988; Meisels, Wiske, & Tivnan; 1984; Tramontana, Hooper, & Selzer, 1988). This emphasis on the inseparability of curriculum and assessment and the premise that assessment activities should contribute to instructional improvement has raised major challenges for educational measurement. Many of the alternative assessment methods have not been evaluated for technical adequacy or have yielded low reliability and/or validity estimates (Koretz, Stecher, Klein, & McCaffrey, 1994; Linn & Baker, 1996; Moss, 1992; Shavelson, Baxter, & Pine, 1992). Performance-based assessment, student portfolios, authentic assessment, curriculum-based assessment, and curriculum-based measurement have all been described in the literature and used by school psychologists as forms of alternative assessment (Shinn, 1995). However, considerable variability remains in the technical attributes and feasibility of implementation for these instruments (Burstein, 1994; Lane, Stone, Ankenmann, & Liu, 1992). Curriculum-based measurement (CBM) is one of the few alternative forms of assessment where an impressive body of data supports the technical adequacy and the practical application of these techniques in the assessment of young children (Deno, 1985; Deno & Fuchs, 1987; Fuchs, Deno, & Mirkin, 1984; Fuchs & Fuchs, 1997; Germann & Tindal, 1985; Marston & Magnusson, 1985; Shinn, 1989). School psychologists have used curriculum-based measurement as a form of performance assessment that features measurement of student proficiency across core areas of the curriculum. Curriculum-based measures were developed and standardized in order to facilitate frequent, ongoing assessment of basic skills and formative evaluation of student progress. …

A Descriptive Analysis and Critique of the Empirical Literature on School-Based Functional Assessment.

Abstract: This article provides a wide range of information for 100 articles published from January 1980 through July 1999 that describe the functional assessment (FA) of behavior in school settings. Results...

School-Based Aggression Prevention Programs for Young Children: Current Status and Implications for Violence Prevention

Abstract: There is a growing consensus that school psychologists, researchers, and policy makers need to work together to define policies and promote procedures for keeping schools safe for young children. T...

Increasing On-Task Behavior in an Elementary Student during Mathematics Seatwork by Interspersing Additional Brief Problems

Abstract: . Using analogue conditions, previous researchers improved students' perceptions of mathematics assignments by adding and interspersing brief problems to mathematics worksheets (e.g., Logan & Skinner, 1998). In the current study, an alternating treatments design was used to evaluate the effects of the interspersal procedure on an elementary student who was referred to a school psychologist for high rates of off-task behavior during independent seatwork. Results showed that the procedure increased the student's on-task levels during classroom mathematics assignments. Discussion focuses on implications for practitioners and on future research designed to improve students' (a) academic behaviors, (b) academic performance, and (c) perceptions of assignments. School psychologists are committed to the identification, remediation, and prevention of children's problems (Ysseldyke et al., 1997). The majority of students referred to school psychologists are experiencing academic problems (Ownby, Wallbrown, D'Atri, & Armstrong, 1985; Shapiro, 1996). Although many procedures have been developed to prevent and remedy academic skill deficits, none of these procedures are likely to be effective if students choose to engage in nonacademic behaviors (Berliner, 1984; Greenwood, Deiquadri, & Hall, 1984). Increasing the probability of students choosing to engage in assigned academic behaviors also has been shown to decrease rates of inappropriate social behavior (Horner, Day, Sprague, O'Brien, & Heatherfield, 1991; Martens, & Houk, 1989; Martens, Lochner, & Kelly, 1992). Thus, research related to studentchoice behaviors could prove useful to school psychologists who are interested in developing and implementing procedures designed to prevent and remedy both academic skills defi cits and inappropriate behaviors within educational settings (Myerson & Hale, 1984). Much of the research related to studentchoice behaviors has been based on concurrent schedules of reinforcement. These studies have shown that students were more likely to choose to engage in assigned academic tasks when reinforcement for desired academic behaviors was delivered more frequently and more immediately (Mace, McCurdy, & Quigley, 1990; Neef, Mace, Shea, & Shade, 1992). Furthermore, students were more likely to engage in assigned tasks when high quality reinforcers were provided (Neef, Mace, & Shade, 1993; Neef, Shade, & Miller, 1994). Other researchers have examined the impact assignments have on student on-task levels or choice behaviors (Dunlap & Kern, 1997). Making assignments briefer or easier and allowing students to choose assignments have been shown to be effective in increasing the probability of students choosing to engage in assigned academic work (Cooke, Guzaukas, Pressley, & Kerr, 1993; Dunlap et al., 1994; Dyer, Dunlap, & Winterling, 1990; Kern, Childs, Dunlap, Clarke, & Falk, 1994; Horner & Day, 1991). Pacing can also influence students' on-task behaviors. Researchers investigating teacher-paced academic assignments have shown that on-task levels and accuracy of responding were higher when academic stimuli were delivered at a more rapid pace (Carnine, 1976; Darch & Gersten, 1985). Others have increased the pace of student academic responding during independent seatwork through the use of explicit timing procedures and reduction in time to complete assignments (e.g., Miller, Hall, & Heward, 1995; Van Houten, Hill, & Parsons, 1975). Again, results showed that these procedures can increase both the accuracy of student responses and student on-task levels. School psychology researchers investigating the interspersal procedure developed a theory that may explain why students prefer assignments that result in more rapid task completion. These researchers posited that when students are working independently on assignments that require them to complete many discrete tasks, the completion of each task may serve as a reinforcing event (Logan & Skinner, 1998; Skinner et al. …

Reducing disruptive behaviors in students with serious emotional disturbance

Abstract: A multicomponent intervention that included a precision request program, mystery motivators, token economy with response cost, and antecedent strategies (ie, public posting of classroom rules and

Developing a General Outcome Measure of Growth in the Expressive Communication of Infants and Toddlers

Abstract: Proficiency in expressive communication is an important outcome in early childhood necessary for cognitive and social development. The development of an experimental measure for assessing growth in...

The Reliability and Validity of Curriculum-Based Measurement Readiness Probes for Kindergarten Students.

Abstract: . A series of group-administered curriculum-based measurement (CBM) probes were developed to assist in the identification of kindergarten students exhibiting deficient readiness skills. The technical adequacy of the readiness probes was assessed in two suburban, public kindergarten centers. Reliability was assessed in three ways with 107 kindergarten students. Alternate forms reliability was assessed via administration of parallel forms of probes. Source reliability was assessed via independent scorer agreement. Item reliability was assessed via Cronbach's alpha. A random sample of 31 students participated in the validity phase of the study. Concurrent, predictive, and social validity were assessed. Acceptable reliability and validity estimates were obtained for three of the kindergarten probe measures. The use of kindergarten CBM probes as a potential screening device to fit within a larger framework of functional academic assessment and early intervention is proposed. Several early intervention studies have demonstrated robust effects for remediating early academic skill deficits and preventing future deficits and failure (Lennon & Slesinski 1999; Vellutino, Scanlon, & Tanzman, 1998). Mastery of readiness skills has been shown to correlate with performance during subsequent instruction on related academic tasks. For example, Gettinger (1986) found that students trained in prereading skills (e.g., letter recognition, letter naming, letter sound production) performed significantly better during subsequent reading instruction than students assigned to a matched, no-training control group. Additionally, students trained in prereading skills required fewer trials to criterion during subsequent reading instruction as compared to students who did not receive training in prereading skills. Thus, early academic performance may be predictive of later academic performance. Early intervention is appealing to practitioners because it holds the possibility of remediation of deficits prior to the student falling behind his or her classmates. Future instructional goals require mastery of basic subskills. Early intervention allows professionals to remediate deficits that occur early in the sequence, thus potentially avoiding additional deficits because of frustration on the required subskills. In a longitudinal study, Vellutino et al. (1998) demonstrated that 67% of their experimental group became average readers and no longer qualified as learning disabled following one semester of individual tutoring in the first grade. Further, the growth rate on reading skills from first through third grade of identified low readers receiving the intervention approximated the growth rate of normal readers, lending support to the idea that ensuring mastery of early subskills prevents future deficits and failure. The conclusions of this study are limited by the absence of a control group of low rea ders not receiving the intervention. Lennon and Slesinski (1999) used a letter-naming task to identify kindergarten students who then received intensive tutoring in reading readiness skills. Students receiving the intervention significantly outperformed students assigned to the wait-list control group. Because children enter kindergarten with differing degrees of school preparation, practitioners must assess the degree to which lack of educational exposure affects the student's performance. Thus, many authors have suggested that response to intervention constitutes the primary criterion for special education classification (Lennon & Slesinski, 1999; Vellutino, Scanlon, & Tanzman, 1998; Vellutino et al. 1996). Curriculum-based measurement (CBM) involves direct measurement of basic skills. Since the advent of CBM, multiple studies have demonstrated the technical adequacy and practical utility of CBM in planning instruction, monitoring progress, and making classification and placement decisions (see Marston, 1989 for a review). …

An Approach to Functional Assessment in General Education Classroom Settings

Abstract: . Although research has clearly demonstrated the utility of functional assessment across a variety of settings and populations, the literature contains few examples of a comprehensive approach to functional assessment in general education settings that effectively bridges research to the everyday practice of school psychology. Functional assessment has been presented as a three-step process involving informant assessment, direct observations, and experimental analyses. In the present case illustration, teacher interviews, conditional probability analyses of direct observations, and brief teacher-implemented functional analyses are demonstrated to help practitioners learn an efficient and effective method for determining the function of problem behaviors exhibited in general education classrooms. Future directions and implications of functional assessment research and practice in general education classrooms are discussed. A major criticism of the applied behavior analytic (ABA) approach to functional assessment has been that few documented examples of effective practice in general education settings currently exist (Miller, 2000; Nelson, Roberts, Bullis, Albers, & Ohland, 2000). Emerging research has extended functional assessment procedures to general classroom settings to evaluate the effects of teacher and peer attention and escape or avoidance of educational tasks on the disruptive behavior of individual students (e.g., Broussard & Northup, 1995; Lewis & Sugai, 1996; Moore, Doggett, Edwards, & Olmi, 1999). The identification of specific variables known to be associated with problem behavior enhances the probability of treatment effectiveness and prevents a series of ineffective interventions based on best guesses and unconfirmed hypotheses (Iwata, Dorsey, Slifer, Bauman, & Richman, 1994). According to Iwata, Vollmer, and Zarcone (1990), functional assessments are designed to generate hypotheses about antecedent and consequent environmental variables that may control or maintain problem behavior. Although ABA approaches are extremely useful in intervention design, the ABA approach has been criticized as being: (a) vague in terms of the exact components that comprise a thorough functional assessment, (b) nonspecific in providing guidelines for conducting a descriptive assessment, and (c) nonunified in its approach to experimental analysis (Miller, 2000; Nelson et al., 2000). Cone (1997) offered an integrative three-step approach to ABA functional assessment that could be useful for practicing school psychologists. A Three-Step Approach to Functional Assessment According to Cone (1997), three major steps comprise the functional assessment procedure: the descriptive phase, the interpretive phase, and the verification phase. The correlational data concerning problem behavior and environmental stimuli provided in the descriptive phase can be separated into indirect and direct methods (Gresham & Lambros, 1998). Indirect methods do not involve direct contact with target behaviors and do include interviews with teachers, students, and/or parents; behavioral rating scales; checklists; and questionnaires (Lennox & Miltenberger, 1989). Direct methods involve the systematic observation of behavior in either the natural setting or a contrived analog situation that approximates events in the natural setting (O'Neill et al., 1997). It is important to note that descriptive methods cannot confirm causal relationships between antecedent and consequent stimuli and the target behavior. During the interpretive phase, hypotheses are generated from examination of descriptive data. The formation of hypotheses from interview data entails inspecting informant responses to critical questions derived for each potential controlling contingency (e.g., attention, escape). Often, follow-up interviews are vital in the clarification of data critical to the formation of hypotheses (Moore et al. …

Functional Assessment of Distracting and Disruptive Behaviors in the School Setting

Abstract: More common than severe behaviors, distracting and instructionally disruptive behaviors frequently result in disciplinary decisions being made for the student who is exhibiting them. These behavior...

Functional Behavioral Assessments: Legal Requirements and Challenges

Abstract: The Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) Amendments of 1997 require that if a student's behavior impedes his or her learning or the learning of others, then that student's Individuali...

What Does the Cognitive Assessment System (CAS) Measure? Joint Confirmatory Factor Analysis of the CAS and the Woodcock-Johnson Tests of Cognitive Ability (3rd Edition).

Abstract: Results of recent research by Kranzler and Keith (1999) raised important questions concerning the construct validity of the Cognitive Assessment System (CAS; Naglieri & Das, 1997), a new test of in...

Effects of testing accommodations on standardized mathematics test scores: An experimental analysis of the performances of students with and without disabilities

Abstract: . The study examined the effects of testing accommodations on the mathematics test scores of a sample of 86 fourth-grade students, which included 43 students with disabilities (SWD) and 43 students without disabilities (SWOD). This study featured a 2 x 2 x 2 mixed design in which all participants were tested under a treatment condition (i.e., accommodations during test) and a control condition (i.e., no accommodations during test) using equivalent forms of a mathematics test used in many statewide assessment programs. Testing conditions were randomized to counteract possible order effects. Primary analyses indicated that SWDs experienced a larger effect in the accommodated condition than did SWODs. The SWDs profited more than SWODs on the multiple-choice items, but not on the constructed-response items. Similar numbers of students with and without disabilities experienced either (a) a beneficial effect in the accommodated test condition resulting in an increased proficiency level, (b) a detrimental ef fect in the accommodated test condition resulting in a decreased proficiency level, or (c) a minimal effect resulting in no change in proficiency levels. These results and several limitations to the study are discussed along with implications for practice and future research. Testing accommodations are a legally permissible method intended to facilitate the meaningful participation of more students with disabilities in state- and district-wide accountability programs. When selected and implemented appropriately, testing accommodations are believed to lead to technically sound test results (S. Elliott, Braden, & White, 2001; Thurlow, J. Elliott, & Ysseldyke, 1998). Yet, to date there is limited experimental evidence to support this assertion (S. Elliott, Kratochwill, & McKevitt, 2001). The present study adds to the experimental evidence by examining the effect accommodations have on test scores and documenting student reactions to testing under accommodated and nonaccommodated testing conditions. Specifically, this study focuses on the effect of testing accommodations on students' test scores on equivalent forms of a mathematics test used in many statewide assessment programs. This type of research has direct relevance to the participation of and accountability for students with di sabilities in large-scale assessments such as those used in standards-based reform efforts across the United States (S. Elliott & Kratochwill, 1996; Thurlow et al., 2000). Definition of Testing Accommodations One assumption of standardized achievement tests is that they allow comparability across students because the test is administered in the same way, under the same conditions for all students. For some students, however, the validity of inferences made from test results may be questionable because aspects of a disability impeded performance on the test and the scores do not truly reflect the outcomes the test purports to measure. For this reason, tests are often altered in response to individuals' disabilities. It is believed that these test alterations, if conceptualized appropriately, can remove irrelevant barriers to performance and allow a person with a disability to demonstrate his or her "true" abilities. Various terms are frequently used to describe alterations to tests, including accommodation and modification cation (Thurlow, Ysseldyke, & Silversterin, 1993), yet these terms technically have different meanings. According to S. Elliott and Kratochwill (1996), an accommodation is a change in an assessment that is intended to maintain or facilitate the measurement goals of the assessment so scores from the accommodated test measure the same attributes as scores from the nonaccommodated test. Any alteration to a test, however, may alter what is measured, and thus affect the validity of the inference made from the test results. Testing accommodations can include alterations to the presentation/response format, timing/scheduling, setting, and assistive technology. …

Evaluating the validity of functional behavior assessment

Abstract: This article provides a brief overview of functional behavior assessment and contrasts and compares functional behavior assessment and traditional psychological assessment. Messick's (1995) theory ...

Comparing the Predictive Validity of First Grade Teacher Ratings and Reading-Related Tests on Third Grade Levels of Reading Skills in Young Children Exposed to Poverty

Abstract: The purpose of this study was to compare the relative utility of teacher ratings versus several kinds of reading-related tests measured in the spring of first grade in predicting third grade levels of reading skills in a sample of predominantly ethnic minority children exposed to poverty (N= 170). The reading-related tests included measures of children's print and vocabulary knowledge and phonological awareness. Linear regression analyses indicated that, in general, teacher ratings predicted later individual differences in reading ability with similar accuracy to that of the reading-related tests. Children were next classified as either reading impaired or normally achieving based on their standardized reading scores in third grade. Logistic regression analyses demonstrated that the first grade teacher ratings classified children into third grade reading groups with a high level of accuracy (at least 73% of the sample correctly identified) and comparable to classification based on reading-related te st performance. The results provide strong support for the utility of teacher ratings as a relatively efficient and cost effective method for early identification of disadvantaged children at high risk of developing reading failure. During the early elementary school years formal reading instruction is the object of beginning instruction; no other single activity occupies as much time in the school day in first, second, and third grade as formal reading instruction (Perfetti & Curtis, 1986). Not surprisingly, this is the time period when some children first fall behind in reading attainment (Stanovich, 1986). In particular, children from lower social class backgrounds are at increased risk for development of reading difficulties during the early school years and beyond when compared to children from more affluent homes (Bowey, 1995; Hecht, Burgess, Torgesen, Wagner, & Rashotte, 2000; Snow, Barnes, Chandler, Goodman, & Hemphill, 1991). Although the relations between socioeconomic status and reading are often found to be substantial, they are far from perfect. In fact, correlations between socioeconomic status and individual differences in word reading skills typically range between .3 and .7 when social class is indexed in terms of parental income, occupation, or educational attainment (White, 1982; see also Hecht et al., 2000; Scarborough, 1998). Less than perfect findings between social background and reading reflect the fact that many children from families experiencing economic hardship succeed in academic skills such as reading (Pianta & Walsh, 1998). Obviously, it is not accurate for school psychologists to assume that all, or even most, children from poor social class backgrounds will develop reading impairments because many of these children succeed in reading. Meanwhile, children from families experiencing economic hardship are usually considered as a group to be at risk for developing a myriad of cognitive and behavioral problems, including reading failure (e.g., Bolger, Patterson, Thompson, & Kupersmidt, 1995; Pianta & Walsh, 1998). This has prompted entire schools to receive Chapter I services, without considering which students served by the school actually need those services. Many children served by Chapter I schools are good readers and do not need special services, at least for reading instruction. Inefficient allocation of limited resources for special services promises to be an increasing problem in the face of ever-growing numbers of children enrolled in school who are reared in poverty conditions (Pianta & Walsh, 1998; Reynolds, 1989; Reyn olds & Bezruczko, 1993). Thus, an important practical issue for school psychologists is to be able to employ the most efficient methods for predicting growth in reading skills during early elementary school in children raised in poverty (Archer & Edwards, 1982). Sensitive predictors of reading growth are needed so that intervention efforts can be directed toward those children who actually are in need of special services (Berninger, Thalberg, DeBruyn, & Smith, 1987; Blachman, 1997; Mann, 1993; Scarborough, 1998; Torgesen, Wagner, Bryant, & Pearson, 1992). …

Curriculum-based assessment procedures embedded within functional behavioral assessments: Identifying escape-motivated behaviors in a general education classroom

Abstract: The purpose of this study was to examine whether curriculum-based assessment (CBA) procedures could be incorporated into a functional behavioral assessment (FBA) to identify antecedent events that ...

The Use of Classroom-Based Brief Functional Analyses with Preschoolers At-Risk for Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder.

Abstract: The efficacy of using brief functional analysis procedures in preschool classrooms for students at-risk for Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) was assessed. Participants in this study ...

Long-Term Stability of the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children-Third Edition among Students with Disabilities

Abstract: Long-term stability of the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children-Third Edition (WISC-III) was investigated for children with specific learning disability (SLD), serious emotional disability (SED...

Functional assessment: Old wine in new bottles.

Abstract: This manuscript traces functional assessment (FA) in school settings to early contributions by B F Skinner that are evident in Science and Human Behavior (1953) The logic and methods of function

Construct Validity of the WISC-III for White and Black Students from the WISC-III Standardization Sample and for Black Students Referred for Psychological Evaluation.

Abstract: This study used both exploratory (EFA) and confiiatory factor analy- ses (CFA) to examine the factor structure of the WISC-III among White and Black students from the WISC-III standardization sample and a sample of 348 Black students referred for psychological evaluation. Results of the EFA provided evi- dence of a large first principal factor as well as the expected Verbal and Perfor- mance components across all three groups. Empirical support for the Freedom from Distractibility dimension was provided only from the confirmatory factor analyses. Although the four factor confirmatory model exhibited the best overall statistical fit, inspection of specific factor loadings revealed anomalies with the third and fourth factors, especially for the Referred Black sample. Implications for school psychologists are presented and recommendations for future research are provided.

Descriptive Assessment Method to Reduce Overall Disruptive Behavior in a Preschool Classroom. (Research into Practice)

Abstract: . Legal mandate and limited resources provide an impetus to increase the utility of functional assessment. Studies have demonstrated the utility of descriptive analysis-based interventions on an individual level (Lalli, Browder, Mace, & Brown, 1993; Mace & Lalli, 1991). The goal of this study was to develop a brief assessment that could be conducted in the natural setting to identify naturally occurring, high-frequency subsequent events that may serve as maintaining consequences for disruptive behavior using the entire class as the unit of analysis. Procedures were conducted in two early childhood classrooms during regularly scheduled classroom activities. Descriptive analyses were conducted by rotating among students every 90 s. Conditional probabilities from the aggregate class data were calculated to identify the most frequently occurring subsequent event(s) for disruptive behavior in each classroom. Following the descriptive analysis, the identified subsequent event was manipulated in an alternati ng treatments design (contingent deilvery of the subsequent event and contingent withholding of the subsequent event) to validate the results of the descriptive analysis. In both classrooms, the descriptive analysis-based contingency reversal treatment more successfully suppressed disruptive behavior than a contraindicated treatment. The purpose of functional assessment is to identify the antecedent and/or subsequent variables that are consistently associated with the occurrence of the behavior targeted for assessment. These assessment data link directly to treatment by identifying potential maintaining variables that can be manipulated to alter the response-reinforcer relationship. For example, presentation of events (e.g., praise, preferred activities or items, food, reprimands) contingent on the occurrence of a behavior may function as positive reinforcement for that behavior, strengthening the behavior. No specific form of treatment (e.g., response cost, medication) has been shown to be sufficiently effective across all behavioral topographies, contingencies, and situations. Thus, function-based treatments, which are individually determined, are quite effective in reducing problematic behaviors and increasing appropriate behaviors (Iwata, Vollmer, Zarcone, & Rodgers, 1993). Indeed, function-based treatments have yielded effective trea tments for aggression (Mace, Page, Ivancic, & O'Brien, 1986), bizarre speech (Mace & Lalli, 1991), disruption (Carr & Durand, 1985), pica (Mace & Knight, 1986), self-injury (Iwata, Dorsey, Slifer, Bauman, & Richman, 1994), and stereotypy (Repp, Felce, & Barton, 1988). Several methods of functional assessment are possible (e.g., analogue functional analysis, in vivo functional analysis, descriptive analysis). In a descriptive analysis, the observer records, usually in a naturalistic setting, occurrences of the target behavior along with temporally proximate antecedent and subsequent events. When antecedent or subsequent events are highly correlated with the occurrence of the target behavior, it is generally inferred that these antecedent or subsequent events predict the occurrence of the target behavior. The mathematical depiction of this relationship is called a conditional probability (Bakeman & Gottman, 1986). Conditional probabilities provide an indication of the degree to which one observed behavior tends to occur in temporal proximity to the occurrence of another observed behavior. That is, conditional probabilities answer the question, "When a target behavior has occurred (i.e., condition), what is the probability that another behavior will either precede or follow the target behavior in close temporal contiguity (i.e., probability)?" For example, if the occurrence of aggression is highly correlated with es cape from demands, the presentation of a demand is said to predict the occurrence of aggression. Further, it is hypothesized (1) that a functional relationship exists between aggression and escape, so that the client engages in aggression to obtain escape from demands (i. …

High Stakes Testing and Expected Progress Standards for Students with Learning Disabilities: A Five-Year Study of One District.

Abstract: . The 1997 amendments to the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act contain provisions designed to increase the participation of children in special education in general education standards-based reform and accountability programs. The reading scores of 461 students with learning disabilities in a single district were followed across 5 years as the district implemented a state-mandated accountability plan and large scale testing program. The accountability program included grade-level proficiency standards for students and cash incentives for school staff to increase student growth. Student growth was assessed with a regression-based growth formula based on the typical progress of students across a school year at each grade. The district's performance with students with learning disabilities improved in terms of mean reading score and percent proficient in reading in elementary school across the 5 years. State standards for growth established in general education appeared to offer a challenging, but achievable, goal for special education services at the district level. However, measurement issues limit the use of growth standards at the school or individual level. The combination of large scale assessment and curriculum-based data linked to the large scale assessments offers the advantage of reliable and valid continuous progress measures for students in special education keyed to the higher expectations for performance and progress within general education. The development of empirically based estimates of expected progress for students with learning disabilities reflects two general concerns about the status of special education over the past two decades: (a) the relatively poor academic outcomes for children with disabilities (Moody, Vaughn, Hughes, & Fisher, 2000; Schulte, Osborne, & Erchul, 1998; Wagner, 1989; Zigmond et al., 1995) and (b) the lack of accountability mechanisms that focus on outcomes rather than processes (Borich & Nance, 1987; Carnine & Granzin, this issue; McLaughlin & Warren, 1992; Shinn, 1986). These same concerns were the impetus for one of the most significant changes included in the reauthorization of the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (Individuals with Disabilities Education Act Amendments of 1997, P.L. 105-17; hereafter IDEA 97)--provisions that will greatly increase the inclusion of students with disabilities in state assessments. The new legislation requires that students with disabilities be included in general statew ide and districtwide assessments (with appropriate accommodations) or take part in alternate assessments. Although this change was spurred by concerns about the consequences of excluding students with disabilities from the widespread accountability and reform efforts underway in general education (U.S. Department of Education, 2000), very little is known about the consequences of including students with disabilities in these reform efforts (Koretz, 1997; McDonnell, McLaughlin, & Morison, 1997). Given that students with learning disabilities spend the majority of their time in general education (U.S. Department of Education, 2000), it is likely that this change will increase the participation of students with learning disabilities in statewide general education assessments and accountability systems. Because many of the accountability reforms underway include high stakes for schools, teachers, and students (Heubert & Hauser, 1999), it is likely that the standards applied to all students in these large scale assessments will become the standards for the majority of students with learning disabilities. Thus, a major criterion for evaluating the adequacy of special education services at the individual or group level for students with learning disabilities will be the extent to which these students meet the standards established for general education. It will be important that any efforts to use empirically based estimates of progress to improve special education outcomes and accountability complement rather than compete with the sweeping changes in assessment policies brought about by IDEA 97. …

Long-Term Follow-Up of Self-Modeling as an Intervention for Stuttering

Abstract: This brief article reports a long-term follow-up of the effects of self-modeling on the reduction of stuttering in two groups of students who initially evidenced different mean percentages of stutt...

A School-Based Intervention Designed To Reduce the Frequency of Tics in Children with Tourette's Syndrome.

Abstract: The study used an A/B/B+C multiple baseline design across individuals with a follow up to examine the effects of a two-component treatment package composed of habit reversal and self-modeling to re...

Elementary Children's School Friendship: A Comparison of Peer Assessment Methodologies.

Abstract: This study compared four methods of assessing children's friendships-peer nominations, peer ratings, reciprocal peer nominations, and social networking A total of 174 children between first and th

Reliability and Accuracy of a Performance-Based Behavioral Recording Procedure.

Abstract: The most common criticisms of behavioral assessment procedures are that they are complex, time-consuming, and impractical, and therefore, are often not applicable within school settings. This artic...

"You Really Don't Know How Much It Hurts:" Children's and Preservice Teachers' Reactions to Childhood Teasing

Abstract: Abstract The sensitivity of preservice teachers to the impact of teasing on children was examined. Preservice teachers (n = 164) and elementary-age children (n = 184) viewed one of three videotaped responses (i.e., Hostile, Ignore, or Humorous) to an observed teasing incident among children and then evaluated the child actor's response to the teasing and social status of the participants in the teasing episode. Preservice teachers were asked to respond as they thought children would. Results revealed several important differences between responses of preservice teachers and children, including how mad participants would be if they were involved and the effectiveness of the child's response to discourage subsequent teasing. Results are discussed in terms of their implications for understanding teachers' responses to teasing incidents in the school environment.