Showing papers in "Systems Research and Behavioral Science in 1984"

Callosal inhibition: The key to the brain code

Abstract: A mechanism for interhemispheric communication is proposed based upon the assumption of homotopic callosal inhibition. The implied pattern of cortical activity in each cerebral hemisphere is shown to be the mirror-image and "photographic negative" of the contralateral pattern. Mirror-imagery is a direct consequence of (1) approximate cerebral hemispheric bilateral symmetry and (2) homotopic callosal connections. The photographic negative relationship is a direct consequence of (1) bilaterally symmetrical activation of the cortex via subcortical "attentional" mechanisms and (2) inhibition by a unilaterally established engram of an identical cortical pattern contralaterally. In language generation and understanding, excitation predominantly in the left hemisphere produces on the right inhibition of language-related neurons as well as excitation of all surrounding "contextual" neurons. The suggested dichotomy of verbal and contextual functions of the cerebral hemispheres is shown to be supported by previous findings concerned with cognition in brain-damaged patients. Unlike earlier suggestions of linguistic and paralinguistic specializations in the left and right, the mirror-image negative hypothesis is based upon an explicit physiological process rather than unspecified differences in "information processing."

Languages and grammars of action and interaction: Some further results

Abstract: This paper continues the work reported in Skvoretz and Fararo (1980) by advancing proofs for results that were only previously conjectured. The proofs show that under conditions of relatively wide generality, actions and interactions can be seen to have a language-like structure; that is, generated by grammars of action and interaction. From a systems viewpoint, the concern is with the temporal structure of the activity of living systems–organisms, groups, and/or organizations. The theory is applicable at any level of analysis to the extent that the actions of units at each level can be appropriately specified. The theory shows how a potentially infinite number of distinct strings of action and interaction can be produced by finite means available to an acting unit. Substantively, the theory offers a more sophisticated basis for the study of the structure of the activity of living systems, even when that activity contains apparently “creative” elements that would seem to argue against a structural analysis (Turner, 1962).

Cusp and butterfly catastrophe modeling of two opponent process models: Drug addiction and work performance

Abstract: This article concerns a cross-level formal identity between systems at the level of the organism and the level of an organization. It discusses catastrophe modeling for a class of theories, opponent process models, particularly two that have been proposed for drug addiction and the job satisfaction-performance relationship. The resulting models are then expanded to butterfly catastrophes; results converge with models proposed from other vantage points. While job satisfaction and drug addiction appear to have little to do with each other, the mathematical modeling common to them offers a systemic link between an individual and a foreign chemical substance, and an individual within a job in an organization.

Multifaceted modeling methodology: Grappling with the irreducible complexity of systems

Abstract: The multifaceted modeling methodology discussed in this article is an approach to simulation modeling that realizes that reality is complex, and that, although this complexity is not reducible, partial models can be constructed to aid decision making. This methodology recognizes the need to integrate partial knowledge and solutions obtained under the constraints imposed by disciplinary or problem-oriented perspectives. Various concepts that facilitate this integration are reviewed.

Behavioral catastrophes in biological systems

Abstract: Catastrophic behavior of systems of animal organism populations is analyzed in relation to energy inputs into the system. In unconstrained systems, steady state equilibrium behavior is only possible if energy use rates equal input rates, while catastrophic explosions and collapses can occur when energy is drawn from an accumulated pool. In constrained systems, where negative feedback mechanisms regulate proliferation below the energy input rate, catastrophic behavior can occur if the regulative mechanisms saturate or are weakened by external stresses. Such systems are often characterized by breakpoints or thresholds, and we may observe single stable point-equilibria, dual stable point-equilibria, metastable point-equilibria, or cyclic-equilibria. Application of theory to management problems is addressed, with particular reference to an insect pest infesting coniferous forests. Because the risk of undesirable behavior (pest outbreaks) is proportional to the distance from the unstable breakpoint (outbreak threshold), risk can be estimated if the threshold function is known. In the example, the threshold is approximated as a function of forest variables which determine insect numbers and tree resistance to infection.

A catastrophe theory evaluation of a policy to control job absence

Abstract: This paper investigates the relevance of catastrophe theory for describing and predicting discontinuous changes in job absence rates as a function of an organizational policy change. Subjects were 19 groups of employees from a Midwest manufacturing company, divided into two company divisions. The organizational policy regarding absence provided cash incentives for good attendance; the policy change was intended to enhance immediacy of reinforcement of decisions to go to work rather than stay home. Sixteen departments showed a reduction in job absence, which was significant by the sign test. Polynomial regression determined that difference scores were cusp-catastrophically distributed (R2 = .58; control R2 = .27, .30) with average department age as the asymmetry parameter and company division as the bifurcation factor. Results are interpreted from the context of the butterfly theory of motivation in organizations, which has implications for individual persons and for groups.

The effectiveness of the carrot and the stick in increasing dyadic outcomes during duopolistic bargaining

Abstract: Bargaining is a form of decision making which occurs between two or more individuals of some subhuman species of animals as well as human beings in dyads, multi-person groups, organizations, societies, and supranational systems. This article deals with human dyads. Theory and research on the impact of threats on bargaining outcomes are mixed: Some studies find that the use of threats impairs outcomes relative to conditions in which no threats are made; other studies find that threats may be used for signaling and coordination, improving outcomes. Similarly, the literature on the effects of promises is mixed: Some studies suggest that promises lead to trust and openness, and lead to more profitable bargaining; other studies find that promises are used to deceive and manipulate the other bargainer, leading to less profitable outcomes. There is little literature on the joint effects of threats and promises in dyadic bargaining. In the present study, bargainers playing a duopoly cross-maximization game (analogous to the prisoner's dilemma) were provided with either threat messages (T), promise messages (P), threat and promise messages (TP), or no messages, in a factorial design. Dyad profits were ordered T, TP, P, N; that is, dyads with threats made the highest bids and earned the greatest payoffs. Dyad members in the P and TP conditions used the promise messages deceptively to exploit each other. Dyad members in the T and TP conditions used the threat messages to coordinate choices at mutually profitable levels and punished defections from these high levels by the imposition of fines. Dyad outcomes were linearly related to the use of fines and the number of exploitative promises made.

On the strategic properties of some modern methods of group decision making

Abstract: This paper deals with living systems at the individual and group levels. More specifically it focuses on five modern group decision methods: Copeland's, Coombs', and Schwartz' methods along with approval voting and the maximin method. Particular attention is given to the strategic properties of the methods. It is argued that in addition to the property of amenability to the strategic misrepresentation of individual preferences, there are other equally important strategic properties such as vulnerability to the sincere truncation of preferences and agenda-manipulation properties. The five methods are then analyzed in terms of these strategic properties.

Structures for nonhierarchical organizations

Abstract: Nonhierarchical organizations avoid the disadvantages in traditional organizations arising from the superior-subordinate relationship and from the unequal distribution of information in the group. They are discussed from the point of view of: (1) coordination of some members by others, (2) efficient communication, (3) rational assignment of subtasks to parts of the organization, and (4) possibilities for organizational growth. Tree-shaped (hierarchical) organizations are popular because they allow these functions to be performed by a single structure, so that each function promotes the effectiveness of the others. A nonhierarchical organization with this advantage can be designed based on finite geometrical spaces. This paper deals with decision making at the level of the organization.

A test of the von Neumann-Morgenstern stable set solution in cooperative non-sidepayment N-person games

Abstract: This article reports a competitive test of the von Neumann-Morgenstern stable set solution against the imputation set and the undominated set in cooperative non-side-payment games. Two laboratory experiments involving group decision making were conducted with 3-person and 4-person non-sidepayment games having empty core. Predictions for the undominated set, imputation set, and stable set were computed under parameters of α-effectiveness and strict preference. Goodness-of-fit results show that the stable set predicts the observed outcomes more efficiently than do the other solutions tested.

Model-based information technology: Computer and system theoretic foundations

Abstract: A mature model-based information technology would have information utilities for advanced knowledge bases which can use: 1. models with trajectory behavior, 2. models with structural behavior, 3. models with point behavior, 4. models with mixed behavior, 5. pictorial knowledge, 6. symbolic model processing techniques, and 7. artificial intelligence techniques. This paper elaborates on these possibilities to lay down the foundations of an advanced model-based information technology.

The traditional model for perception and theory of knowledge: Its metaphor and two recent alternatives

Abstract: This paper provides 1) a description of what has historically become the traditional model for perception theory and the theory of knowledge, 2) a characterization of the assumptions underlying that model, and 3) a comparison of that traditional model to each of two recent models. The two recent models are the “information-based” model of perception by the psychologist James J. Gibson, and the autopoietic or “organizational closure” model of perception by the biologists Humberto Maturana and Francisco Varela. A description of each model is presented, as are its underlying assumptions and conceptual viewpoint. The author's intent, in an examination of the two recent models, is to show 1) that problems attendant to the traditional model, and to Gibson's model as a variant of it, result from definitions within the ocular metaphor which describes that model; 2) that once the metaphor is discarded, both the theory of perception and the theory of knowledge can be differently circumscribed altogether; and 3) that the autopoietic model of Maturana and Varela has done just that.

Critique and comment. Catastrophe analysis of the simon‐homans model

Abstract: In a paper published earlier in this journal, Fararo (1978) distinguished between two approaches to the application of catastrophe theory, termed catastrophe analysis (of an existing dynamic model) and catastrophe model-building as such. Many examples of the latter type have been published; but of the former, no examples have appeared in social science. This note analyzes a classic contribution to mathematical social science, the Simon (1957) formalization of a sociological theory, to provide a nontrivial example and commentary on the first type of application.

A systems perspective on clinical management.

Abstract: A process-tracing descriptive approach is described which is aimed at understanding the clinical management of diabetes mellitus both from the physician's and the patient's perspective. Physician/patient pairs were interviewed about their views of diabetes management. Content analysis and statement classification were used to develop a four-stage model for clinical management which successfully classified 98% of physician statements and 97% of patient statements. Both four-stage models can be combined with a simplified systems description of clinical diabetes to form a unitary systems model for clinical management. Video recording of routine clinic visits with stimulated recall by physicians suggests this systems view of management has considerable heuristic and explanatory potential. A case analysis is presented to illustrate the explanatory value of the systems perspective on difficult management problems.

Usage of general systems theory core concepts by discipline type, time period, and publication category

Abstract: This paper represents the second half of an extensive empirical analysis of general systems theory (GST) core concepts. An ANOVA examination of concept usage by discipline type, time period, and publication category is made. The analysis supports Miller's contention that it is not necessary to create a new vocabulary for GST; but, that a GST language may be created by choosing broadly applicable terms which can be used in a general sense at all levels.

Theories as systems

Abstract: The central claim of this paper is that theories themselves qualify for definition as systems. Part 1 follows a progression of definitions of system, attempting to end with a relatively sophisticated definition which nonetheless retains the basic intuitive characteristic of structure. Part 2 outlines the definition of theory that I am using (which must be seen as a qualification of the central claim), namely the ‘structuralist’ view of Sneed and Stegmuller. Part 3 relates the definitions arrived at in the preceding parts, to arrive at the aforementioned conclusion. It goes on to discuss some of the implications of this position.

Progress in world modeling: Reflections on the past decade

Abstract: This article appraises the first decade of world modeling. Progress in the field of world modeling has been cumulative. The developments in the field that have brought about this program include: a redefinition of the problematique in directions which demand greater social action; increased methodological rigor; and a maturing view of model applications.

Are the limits of the mind expandable

Abstract: Considering the faculty for learning as a primary human characteristic and means to adaptation, any influence that may reduce this faculty becomes a hazard. Sensory and cognitive stimulation of inappropriate strength, both underload and overload, appears to be one such hazard. The central theme of this paper is overload, in contrast to writings in the 1950s and 1960s which dealt mainly with the ill effects of sensory and cognitive deprivation. The presentation consists of four parts: An account of the author's investigation in which the learning performance of students was correlated with varying input loads; critiques of overload by commentators of different backgrounds; the effects of input on man in the perspective of evolution and of brain-mind identity; a recommendation of physiological and biochemical testing of students exposed to varying input loads in correlation with their learning performance. The physical testing is either to ratify or to invalidate two conclusions reached in observations on the behavioral level. These conclusions are (1) that overload, quantitative or qualitative, obstructs the human capacity for learning, and that such interference may to some extent be a reflection of undesirable changes in autonomic conditions; and (2) that preventive measures can be taken by the structure of an input that reduces it in the perception of its receivers.

Simulation modeling perspectives of the Bangladesh family planning and female education system.

Abstract: A systems dynamics simulation study of the interaction of various social subsystems in the People's Republic of Bangladesh is chosen to address integrated planning concerns. It is concluded that one should not underestimate the potential of noneconomic societal forces: They can have a positive impact on slowing population growth and improving the quality of life. Methodologies included: fuzzy profiles for choosing primary variables; interpretive impact matrices to generate the systems dynamics equations; interactive computer capabilities for purposes other than simulation runs; modeling log file to note modeling assumptions, changes, and redefinitions; and microcomputer portability.

Mutual perceptions in bargaining: A quantitative approach

Abstract: A general adaptive expectations model of bargaining is analyzed from its informational requirements point of view. The bargainers can be individual persons, groups, organizations, or conceivably societies. It is shown that information transmitted through offers and counter-offers is not sufficient for unique adjustments of expectations. As a result, observation of opponent's behavior has to be complemented with its subjective interpretation. Since such an interpretation affects each bargainer's subsequent expectations, the two are linked by defining appropriate (classes of) adjustments. The analysis is then applied to a simple adaptive expectations model of bargaining, illustrating some consequences of insufficiency of information on the outcome of the bargaining process.

Computer simulation modeling of abnormal behavior: a program approach.

Abstract: A need for modeling abnormal behavior on a comprehensive, systematic basis exists. Computer modeling and simulation tools offer especially good opportunities to establish such a program of studies. Issues concern deciding which modeling tools to use, how to relate models to behavioral data, what level of modeling to employ, and how to articulate theory to facilitate such modeling. Four levels or types of modeling, two qualitative and two quantitative, are identified. Their properties are examined and interrelated to include illustrative applications to the study of abnormal behavior, with an emphasis on schizophrenia.

A spatiotemporal model of civilization

Abstract: A mathematical model of an urban civilization is presented. Both time- and space-dependence of the four main variables, population, rural commodities, urban commodities, and state power, are described by coupled partial differential equations. The interaction of the variables produces a complex time evolution of the whole living system. Numerical solution of the equations reveals a number of realistic predictions, including class stratification and destruction of states by conquest. The limitations of the very simple ideas used in constructing the model suggest avenues of further research.

Critique and comment. The concept of revolutionary change: Rejoinder to Ramaprasad

Abstract: The concept of revolutionary change in organizations is explored by taking Ramaprasad's (1982) recent discussion as a point of departure. It is argued a) that Ramaprasad has misinterpreted Miller and Friesen's (1980) concept of revolution; b) that the processes of revolution and evolution have vastly different repercussions for organizational design; c) that it is necessary for theoretical clarity to distinguish among the causes of the revolution, the revolution itself, and its consequences; and d) that there are crucial differences between conceptual and structural revolutions.

Disinformation: properties of market forecasts of benevolent opinion leaders

Abstract: This paper focuses on the asymmetric nature of the information-processing capacility, in particular between the central government and the marketplace in regard to certain major policy variables and leading indicators. It applies to decision making at the individual, group, and national levels. Under suitable circumstances the less well informed will follow the opinions of the better informed and, hence, be liable to manipulation. Though widely discussed in the political arena, the question of manipulative forecasts, or disinformation, remains largely unexplored in major policy areas of economics. Here I demonstrate important properties of manipulative forecasts: (1) they are more variable than mean-square-error forecasts and may be even more variable than the process being forecast, and (2) they tend to chop-and-change more often than either the mean-square-error forecast or the actual process being forecast.