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SA Journal of Industrial Psychology
ISSN: (Online) 2071-0763, (Print) 0258-5200
Page 1 of 12 Original Research
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Author:
Rene van Wyk
1
Aliaon:
1
Department of Industrial
Psychology and People
Management, University of
Johannesburg, South Africa
Corresponding author:
Rene van Wyk,
vanwyk.rene@gmail.com
Dates:
Received: 21 Dec. 2015
Accepted: 12 Sept. 2016
Published: 25 Nov. 2016
How to cite this arcle:
Van Wyk, R. (2016). An
evaluaon of the Posive
Emoonal Experiences Scale:
A preliminary analysis. SA
Journal of Industrial
Psychology/SA Tydskrif vir
Bedryfsielkunde, 42(1),
a1337. hp://dx.doi.
org/10.4102/sajip.v42i1.1337
Copyright:
© 2016. The Authors.
Licensee: AOSIS. This work
is licensed under the
Creave Commons
Aribuon License.
Introducon
The posive psychological movement
With the development of the positive psychology movement, businesses have become more
aware of the advantages thereof and the necessity to nurture positive organisational behaviour
(Luthans, 2002; Meyers, Van Woerkom & Bakker, 2013). The positive psychology movement
initiated by Seligman (1998, 1999) places emphasis on personal strengths, in contrast to the
psychology discipline that has historically concentrated on pathology. This positive psychology
movement regards the illness ideology and negative connotations of traditional clinical psychology
as outdated (Seligman & Csikszenthmihalyi, 2000). The adoption of a positive psychological
approach could potentially prevent psychopathology, emphasising human strengths in all its
facets (Maddux, 2008), promoting quality of life (Seligman & Csikszenthmihalyi, 2000).
The positive psychological movement initiated by Seligman (1998, 1999) was preceded as
behavioural self-management practices (Davis & Luthans, 1980; Luthans & Davis, 1979), followed
by positive organisational behaviour (Luthans, 2002). This concept was extended by introducing
the notion of psychological capital (Luthans, Luthans & Luthans, 2004; Luthans, Youssef & Avolio,
2007) described as the (1) efficacy (confidence) in being successful in challenging situations; (2)
optimism in making positive attributions towards future successes; (3) demonstrating hopeful
Orientation: The positive organisational behaviour movement emphasises the advantages
of psychological strengths in business. The psychological virtues of positive emotional
experiences can potentially promote human strengths to the advantages of business functioning
and the management of work conditions. This is supported by Fredrickson’s broaden-
and-build theory that emphasises the broadening of reactive thought patterns through
experiences of positive emotions.
Research purpose: A preliminary psychometric evaluation of a positive measurement of
dimensions of emotional experiences in the workplace, by rephrasing the Kiefer and Barclay
Toxic Emotional Experiences Scale.
Motivation for the study: This quantitative Exploratory Factor Analysis investigates the
factorial structure and reliability of the Positive Emotional Experiences Scale, a positive
rephrased version of the Toxic Emotional Experiences Scale.
Research approach, design and method: This Exploratory Factor Analysis indicates an
acceptable three-factor model for the Positive Emotional Experiences Scale. These three factors
are: (1) psychological recurrent positive state, (2) social connectedness and (3) physical
refreshed energy, with strong Cronbach’s alphas of 0.91, 0.91 and 0.94, respectively.
Main findings: The three-factor model of the Positive Emotional Experiences Scale provides a
valid measure in support of Fredrickson’s theory of social, physical and psychological endured
personal resources that build positive emotions.
Practical/Managerial implications: Knowledge gained on positive versus negative emotional
experiences could be applied by management to promote endured personal resources that
strengthen positive emotional experiences.
Contribution/value-add: The contribution of this rephrased Positive Emotional Experiences
Scale provides a reliable measure of assessment of the social, physical and endured
psychological and personal resources identified in Fredrickson’s broaden-and-build theory.
Application of this Positive Emotional Experiences Scale as a diagnostic tool may allow
businesses to work towards more positive emotional experiences in the workplace.
An evaluaon of the Posive Emoonal Experiences
Scale: A preliminary analysis
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behaviour through goal directed pathways to succeed; and
(4) signifying resilience in attaining success in the face of
adversity. The application of behavioural self-management
practices in the advancement of psychological capital provides
the opportunity to improve performance and satisfaction
(Luthans, Avey, Clapp-Smith & Li, 2008; Luthans, Avolio,
Avey & Norman, 2007a). Positive organisational behaviour
may promote the psychological capital virtues of the
individual to the advantage of the business (Luthans, 2012;
Luthans et al., 2007). Psychological capital virtues and its
underlying positive emotions are necessary in effective daily
organisational functioning.
Posive emoons and organisaonal outcomes
Positive emotions may hold many advantages for individuals
in an organisation. Positive emotions are defined as seeking
opportunities of good feelings of joyful, inspirational,
grateful and serene states (Fredrickson & Kurtz, 2011). The
relationship between positive emotions and organisational
outcomes are reported in the following studies: Increased
positive affect significantly predicts organisational citizenship
behaviour and task performance, when respectively associated
with a downshift and upshift in negative affect (Yang, Simon,
Wang & Zheng, 2016). The tendency to express positive
emotional behaviours contributes to favourable experiences
by customers (Fischer, 2014), satisfaction with corporate
social responsibility activities (Onkila, 2015), an increase of
prosocial behaviour (Cavanaugh, Bettman & Luce, 2015) and
enhanced team member exchange (Tse & Dasborough, 2008),
as well as assists in making sense of the experiences in
business failure (Byrne & Shepherd, 2015). The ability to
control the emotions of other people within a work team
plays a moderating role in performance (Collins, Jordan,
Lawrence & Troth, 2016). With an increase of personal well-
being resources, a negative relationship forms with stress
symptoms and turnover intention (Siu, Cheung & Lui, 2015).
These positive outcomes could be important in an
organisational setting and may result in many advantages on
individual and organisational level.
Benecial outcomes of posive emoonal
experiences writ large and their possible
benet to business
Positive emotions seem to have personal and social
consequences. Ideally organisations should make use of
positive psychology interventions that promote different
forms of employee well-being and potential performance
(Meyers et al., 2013). Such interventions should include
proficiency in building social relationships through
communication and solving problems (Smith & Hollinger-
Smith, 2015). It is reasoned that although negative emotions
should be acknowledged and managed, the promotion of
positive emotions could be beneficial. The capitalisation of
positive experiences could enhance overall psychological
well-being in an organisation. Organisations could contribute
in preserving a culture of positive emotions and tailoring the
philanthropic management of emotions (Koskina & Keithley,
2010), thereby reaping the benefits. This may lead
organisations to become functional in practising the broaden-
and-build theory characterised by endured social, physical,
intellectual and psychological reserves (Fredrickson, 2001).
Different indications of the nurturing of positive emotions
may play an advantageous role in business. Evidence
suggests that positive emotions increase with the nurturing
of self-enhancement strategies (Ouweneel, Le Blanc &
Schaufeli, 2013). Emotional self-regulation leads to an increase
in both psychological well-being and physical health (Heiy &
Cheavens, 2014). The nurturing of positive affect potentially
leads to endured positive thinking and cognitive processing
(Strauss & Allen, 2006). A tendency towards positive affect
may be useful in the resolution of conflict (Cohrs, Christie,
White & Das, 2013). Similarly, the savouring of beliefs in
endured positive experiences show a significant positive
relationship with resilience, happiness and life satisfaction,
and significantly negatively related to depression (Smith &
Hollinger-Smith, 2015). Positive emotions are believed to
enhance cognitive and social conduct, motivation, coping
strategies, self-efficacy and resilience (Rowe, Fitness & Wood,
2015). The practising of cognitive reappraisal techniques
could reduce unhealthy emotional reactivity of individuals
(Gruber, Hay & Gross, 2014) and improve psychological
well-being (Smith & Hollinger-Smith, 2015). These features
could improve the work relationships in organisations.
Businesses may also benefit from an environment that
preserves constructive emotions. The conscious reappraisal
of constructive emotions develops a sensitisation towards
strategies that improve the regulation of unhealthy moods
(Subic-Wrana et al., 2014). It broadens the cognisance of an
increased association with emotional well-being (Fredrickson
& Joiner, 2002) and compensate for deficiencies, thereby
leading to higher resilience (Smith & Hollinger-Smith, 2015).
Support of positive emotions includes the increase of
dopamine levels, advancing the processing of cognitive
control and resolution of conflict (Xue et al., 2013), an increase
of tolerance thresholds of unpleasantness scores (Van
Laarhoven et al., 2012) and advanced academic engagement
(Ouweneel, Le Blanc & Schaufeli, 2014). The up-regulation of
positive emotions is positively related to different growth
outcomes such as engagement, betterment of goal pursuits
and growth, while it is negatively related to indulgence of
substance and fantasy (Livingstone & Srivastava, 2012).
Positive emotions could also have a contagious positive
effect and penetrate moods of others (Vijayalakshmi &
Bhattacharyya, 2012), which is necessary for the overall work
culture in an organisation. This could prevent depressive
states which are associated with a decrease in positive
emotions (Gruber, Oveis, Keltner & Johnson, 2011), with a
high potential of positive influence on others (Vijayalakshmi &
Bhattacharyya, 2012).
The importance of identifying and measuring positive
emotional experiences in the workplace is clear. The potential
benefits of positive emotions and the ability to identify
recurrent positive emotional states, of social connectedness
Page 3 of 12 Original Research
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and the regulation of refreshed energy are worth investigating.
However, organisations and managers are not always aware
of the state of emotional experiences in an organisation in
order to take self-management actions. A tool to measure
positive emotional experiences could therefore be useful. As
far as could be established there is not an existing scale that
measures positive emotional experiences on more than one
dimension.
The contribution of this article is fourfold. First, the Kiefer
and Barclay’s (2012) Toxic Emotional Experiences Scale is
rephrased by formulating the existing items into positive
emotional experiences statements and pilot tested by a
group of experts. Second, this rephrased Positive Emotional
Experiences Scale of the Kiefer and Barclay’s (2012) Toxic
Emotional Experiences Scale provides a more differentiated
measure of positive emotional experiences, measuring more
than one factor. Third, this rephrased Positive Emotional
Experiences Scale provides the opportunity to businesses to
evaluate the level of positive emotional experiences of their
employees and in the business culture in general. Fourth, this
revised Positive Emotional Experiences Scale potentially
provides opportunities for self-reflection on and rehabilitation
of the growth potential of constructive emotions, on both the
organisational and individual level.
The theory of posive emoons
While positive psychology verifies and explains dynamics
that contribute to how individuals ‘flourish’ (Seligman &
Csikszenthmihalyi, 2000), positive emotions support the
psychological growth and well-being that develops the
capacity to flourish (Fredrickson, 2001). Broadened thinking
of positive emotions contributes towards an upward spiral of
improved emotional welfare (Fredrickson & Joiner, 2002).
Fredrickson (2001) interprets the phenomenon of unique
positive emotions through the positive emotions’ broaden-
and-build theory. Emotions are described as differing from
affect (Fredrickson, 2001). Emotions are regarded as distinct
from affect, where affect is seen as more long-lasting and
conscious than emotions. Emotions are viewed as the
multicomponent tendencies that develop in a brief period, as
an individual consciously or unconsciously ascribe personal
meaning to an event leading to response tendencies embedded
in physiological responses and cognitive processes.
The broaden-and-build theory is an explanation of the
contribution of distinct idiosyncrasies of positive emotions
in broadening an individual’s reactive thought-actions
(Fredrickson, 2001). Consequently reactive thought-actions
assist in building a broad variety of endurance resources, that
is, physical, intellectual, social and psychological. In contrast,
by nurturing negative emotions, results in an opposite effect
leading to a narrowed self-perpetuating downward spiral of
depression, pessimism and negative emotions (Fredrickson &
Joiner, 2002). According to this theory, ‘discrete positive
emotions’, such as ‘joy, interest, contentment, pride and love’
(Fredrickson, 2001, p. 219), broaden the repertoire of an
individual’s momentary thought-actions. This would advance
the possibility that an individual would act with positive
emotions in future situations (Fredrickson & Joiner, 2002).
Consequently, the nurturing of positive emotions should
build endurance on a social, physical, intellectual and
psychological level. Figure 1 provides an interpretation of
Fredrickson’s (2001) broaden-and-build theory.
According to the model in Figure 1, discrete positive
emotions, as described by Frederickson (2001), represent
love, joy, content, interest, pride and love, and support an
assortment of momentary thoughts. These thoughts of an
individual shape and form endured personal resources
(social, physical, intellectual and psychological). Such
personal resources act as a durable reserve in managing
challenges by undoing negative emotions and improving
general emotional well-being. Thus, the nurturing and
perpetuation of positive emotions could broaden the
repertoire of momentary thought-actions which lead to
enduring strengths on a social, physical, intellectual and
psychological level.
The relavity of posive and negave emoonal
experiences and the role of social construcon
in emoonal experiences
Positive and negative emotions are relative concepts and not
cast in stone. For instance, Maddux (2008) argues that the
illness ideology of clinical psychology is a socially constructed
and not a scientifically proven fact. This argument emphasises
the notion that emotions are not fixed. It also opens up the
opportunity for change and rehabilitation, accentuating that
individuals are not stuck in emotions and have the ability to
actively take control of the enhancement of their personal
well-being (Kaplan et al., 2014). The relativity of emotional
responses is to a large extent prescribed by society, through
cultural conditioning and beliefs maintained by socially
constructed regulatory measures (Knyazev, Barchard,
Razumnikova & Mitrofanova, 2012; Miyamoto, Ma &
Petermann, 2014). For this reason, cultural and idiosyncratic
differences of positive and negative thinking patterns are
regarded as causal factors of psychological well-being
(Diener et al., 2009). Accordingly the overall higher levels of
life satisfaction in cultures that assess states of positive
emotion as important (Bastian, Kuppens, De Roover &
Diener, 2014). Should individuals realise the relativity and
social influence of emotional reactions, the possibility of
taking control of the rehabilitation and stabilisation of their
emotions could increase. Catalino, Algoe and Fredrickson
Joy
Interest
Contentment
Pride
Love
Builds
Endured personal
resources that
build posive
emoons
• Social
• Physical
• Intellectual
• Psychological
Broadens
momentary
thought-ac�on
repertoire
Discrete posive emoons
FIGURE 1: Model based on Fredrickson’s (2001) broaden-and-build theory.
Page 4 of 12 Original Research
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(2014) coined the term prioritising positivity to explain the
habit of daily giving precedence to positive emotional self-
regulation strategies. This delicate prioritising of positivity
leads to resilience and frequent positive emotional
experiences. It is, however, important to view positive and
negative emotional experiences in balance.
Culvaon of posive emoons through
behavioural self-management
The study of emotions and emotional contamination has
gained increased importance in investigating organisational
behaviour and operation (Liang & Steve Chi, 2013;
Vijayalakshmi & Bhattacharyya, 2012). In the early 1980s,
Davis and Luthans (1980) emphasised that organisations
should realise that emotional responses are manageable
through behavioural self-management. This implies that
emotional self-regulation is fundamentally important in the
effectiveness of the organisational functioning (Davis &
Luthans, 1980; Luthans & Davis, 1979). Luthans and Davis
(1979, p. 43) define behavioural self-management as ‘the
deliberate regulation of stimulus cues, covert processes, and
response consequences to achieve personality identified
behavioural outcomes’. Organisations could benefit from
being more aware of the positive emotional virtues of
individuals as these shape endured personal resources, such
as psychological well-being (Rothmann, Steyn & Mostert,
2005), greater happiness, life satisfaction and less depression
(Smith & Hollinger-Smith, 2015).
The regulaon and applicaon of posive aect
in the workplace
The study of emotions and emotional contamination has
gained increased importance in investigating organisational
behaviour and operation (Liang & Steve Chi, 2013;
Vijayalakshmi & Bhattacharyya, 2012). The application of
practical psychology is often out of the reach of management
(Axelrod, 2015). Self-management practices that promote
positive affect in the workplace provide the opportunity to
management to practically apply positive organisational
behaviour. Positive affect is for instance significantly positively
related to positive attentional bias, psychological well-being
and life satisfaction and significantly negatively related to
weak attentional bias and depression (Xu et al., 2015). The
evaluation of worker’s emotional experiences and necessary
change management strategies could be beneficial to a
business (Steigenberger, 2015) and team performance (Collins
et al., 2016). The cognition of positive emotional experiences
seems to significantly contribute to the successful guidance
of future appraisal strategies when handling challenging
situations (Levine, Schmidt, Kang & Tinti, 2012). The
regulation of emotions has an influence on the psychological
and physiological reactions of an individual (Jackson,
Malmstadt, Larson & Davidson, 2000). Regulation of
emotional responses through cognitive reappraisal strategies
(Kim & Hamann, 2007) and positive interaction (Maddux,
2008) is significant in the nurturing of mental health. An
authentic positive work environment can be created by
informally tailoring the philanthropic management of
emotions (Koskina & Keithley, 2010). This can be done by
consciously engaging in actions that nurture support and
care. All in all positive emotional experiences could thus be
utilised to the advantage of a business.
A balanced view of negave and posive
emoonal experiences
Positive psychology and the emphasis on positive emotions
do not imply that pathology and negative emotional
experiences should be ignored. Positive emotions, despite
their positive influence, may potentially also have negative
consequences when negative states are not acknowledged
and dealt with. Similarly positive and negative emotions
should not simply regarded as aligned with positive and
negative outcomes, as it could have contrasting outcomes
(Lindebaum & Jordan, 2012). For instance, powerful positive
emotions could be interpreted as arrogance, while powerful
negative emotions could be interpreted as an authentic
response to an unhealthy situation (Lindebaum & Jordan,
2012). Catalino et al. (2014) warn that unrealistic and obsessive
inflated positive emotions may backfire as it is often not
sustainable. As sustainability deteriorates, it leads to feelings
of despondency.
It is especially important that both positive and negative
emotions are acknowledged and addressed in business.
Cohrs et al. (2013) warn that positive psychology potentially
has adverse effects when it does not necessarily serve all
parties. The lack of acknowledgement of negative emotions
could have antagonistic outcomes and snowball into toxic
emotions and pathology with detrimental consequences for a
business (Kiefer & Barclay, 2012) and burnout (Quinones,
Rodriguez-Carvajal, Clarke & Griffiths, 2016). Sharing
negative emotions socially, could lead to positive emotional
outcomes and social integration (Yang & Kelly, 2016) and
healthy positive outcomes (Quinones et al., 2016). The
constructive expression of negative emotions could improve
important exchange of knowledge that may improve project
performance (Stephens & Carmeli, 2016). The importance of
acknowledging negative emotions is evident as negative
repercussions may follow when negative states are not
addressed (Cohrs et al., 2013), leading to diminished
psychological health, deteriorating views towards the
workplace and diminished performance (Kiefer & Barclay,
2012). Similarly the existence of positive affect is on its own
not effective in business. The productive self-management
and reciprocal management of team members’ emotional
reactions is necessary to optimise performance, especially
when tasks are complex (Collins et al., 2016). Thus, the
identification and acknowledgement of negative emotions
and remedial processes are necessary to establish a healthy
work environment. When knowledge is gained concerning
negative states, it can serve as motivation to take the necessary
precautionary action.
This is thus a stern warning that the regulation of positive
emotions on an organisational level should not serve as a
mechanism to ignore or deny negative emotional experiences
Page 5 of 12 Original Research
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(Cohrs et al., 2013). For instance, negative emotions often
explain an individual’s lack of work engagement (Kiefer &
Barclay, 2012). Knowledge of negative states could prevent
pathology. When individuals are able to identify negative
states, they can act pre-emptively, with discretion, and
consequently conserve their energy appropriately. A society
with low emotional awareness regulation strategies seems to
promote maladaptive emotional behaviours (Subic-Wrana
et al., 2014) that would jeopardise harmony in a business. On
the contrary, positive emotions promote subjective well-
being and life satisfaction (Bastian et al., 2014; Weytens,
Luminet, Verhofstadt & Mikolajczak, 2014), which are very
beneficial to an organisation. Should a business create a
culture that is sensitive to both positive and negative
emotions, discretionary coping mechanisms are developed
which act as a safeguard in a supportive culture (Kiefer &
Barclay, 2012). Because of the importance of acknowledging
both positive and negative emotions, Knyazev et al. (2012)
suggest that scientific enquiry should take both into account
when investigating the relationships of emotions with other
variables.
Measurement of posive and negave
emoonal experiences
Kiefer and Barclay (2012) developed a Toxic Emotional
Experiences Scale. These authors argue that negative
emotions can be detrimental to the individual in the work
situation as they lead to adverse toxic emotional experiences.
Toxic emotional experiences are defined as evolving from
short-lived negative emotions, to a sustained affective state
that is (1) psychologically recurring and unresolved,
(2) causes disconnection from one’s personal social network,
and (3) physically and psychologically draining (Kiefer &
Barclay, 2012). It is proposed that positive emotional
experiences is regarded as a long-lasting psychologically
recurring affective state, resulting in being associated with
one’s personal social network, which is physically and
psychologically uplifting. It is argued that positive and
negative emotions should not be regarded as two opposing
ends of a continuum, rather two unrelated dimensions
(Todorova, Bear & Weingart, 2014), that are discreet
(Fredrickson, 2001). The discussion above emphasises the
importance of also measuring the experience of positive
emotions. Healthy emotions are seen to benefit individuals
by potentially spreading positive emotions in an organisation
(Vijayalakshmi & Bhattacharyya, 2012). A measure of both
positive and negative emotional experiences could be
beneficial as it could provide information on current states
and opportunities of improvement.
Raonale for rephrasing the Kiefer and Barclay’s
(2012) Toxic Emoonal Experiences Scale
Existing positive and negative emotional scales are the
Positive and Negative Affect Scale (PANAS) (Watson, Clark &
Tellegen, 1988), Diener et al.’s (2009) Scale of Positive and
Negative Experiences (SPANE) that measures feelings, and
the Diener et al.’s (2009) Positive Thinking Scale (PTS) that
measures positive and negative attitudes. These scales
measure positive and negative emotions or experiences on
single dimensions, as either positive or negative. The Kiefer
and Barclay’s (2012) Toxic Emotional Experiences Scale is
more differentiated, measuring different forms of negative
emotions on three factors, namely psychologically recurring,
disconnecting socially and draining emotional states. The
Kiefer and Barclay’s (2012) Toxic Emotional Experiences
Scale is as far as could be established, the only scale that
measures negative emotions on more than one dimension. A
similar differentiated measure of positive emotional
experiences is needed. It therefore proposed to rephrase the
Kiefer and Barclay’s (2012) scale into a Positive Emotional
Experiences Scale to measure a positive psychological state,
social connectedness and physical refreshed energy. Such a
positive measure would provide a more balanced measure of
both positive and negative emotional experiences. If both
positive and toxic negative emotions are seen in balance, the
advantages of the positive alternative could become a more
attractive ideal to aspire to. In this way, personal and
organisational challenges may be bridged more effectively.
With a Positive Emotional Experiences Scale individuals and
businesses could work on developing a positive behaviour
cycle that perpetuates positive organisational behaviour.
Such a positive scale could provide the platform for striving
to work proactively towards positive outcomes and the
management of negative emotions and its sources.
By rephrasing and validating the Kiefer and Barclay’s (2012)
Toxic Emotional Experiences Scale into positive terms,
businesses would be provided with a tool to assess positive
emotional experiences. This is important, seen in the light
that other positive and negative emotion scales measure only
one dimension, opposed to the Kiefer and Barclay’s (2012)
Toxic Emotional Experiences Scale that measures three
dimensions. This study aims to give clarity on the internal
consistency and reliability of the positively phrased version
of the Kiefer and Barclay’s (2012) Toxic Emotional Experiences
Scale. Clarity is aimed at determining the acceptability of the
item loadings of the three proposed factors and determining
the internal reliability of the factors. The contribution of the
validation of such a scale is that it provides a springboard for
the evolvement of a positive emotional experience scale on
more than one dimension.
Research method
Research approach
This study is a quantitative, cross-sectional research design
aimed at investigating the theoretic constructs of the Positive
Emotional Experiences Scale by means of Principal Axis
Factor Analysis. Principal Factor Analysis is used to provide
a regression equation (operational definition) to test the
theoretic nature of the underlying observed variables
(Tabachnick & Fidell, 2014). The Positive Emotional
Experiences Scale was developed by rephrasing the Kiefer
and Barclay’s (2012) Toxic Emotional Experiences Scale into
positive emotional statements. The aim was that it would
represent three factors: psychological recurrent positive state,
social connectedness and physical refreshed energy.