Journal ArticleDOI
Norm theory: Comparing reality to its alternatives
Daniel Kahneman,Dale T. Miller +1 more
TLDR
In this article, a theory of norms and normality is presented and applied to some phenomena of emotional responses, social judgment, and conversations about causes, such as emotional response to events that have abnormal causes, the generation of predictions and inferences from observations of behavior and the role of norms in causal questions and answers.Abstract:
A theory of norms and normality is presented and applied to some phenomena of emotional responses, social judgment, and conversations about causes. Norms are assumed to be constructed ad hoc by recruiting specific representations. Category norms are derived by recruiting exemplars. Specific objects or events generate their own norms by retrieval of similar experiences stored in memory or by construction of counterfactual alternatives. The normality of a stimulus is evaluated by comparing it to the norms that it evokes after the fact, rather than to precomputed expectations. Norm theory is applied in analyses of the enhanced emotional response to events that have abnormal causes, of the generation of predictions and inferences from observations of behavior, and of the role of norms in causal questions and answers. This article is concerned with category norms that represent knowledge of concepts and with stimulus norms that govern comparative judgments and designate experiences as surprising. In the tradition of adaptation level theory (Appley, 1971; Helson, 1964), the concept of norm is applied to events that range in complexity from single visual displays to social interactions. We first propose a model of an activation process that produces norms, then explore the role of norms in social cognition. The central idea of the present treatment is that norms are computed after the event rather than in advance. We sketch a supplement to the generally accepted idea that events in the stream of experience are interpreted and evaluated by consulting precomputed schemas and frames of reference. The view developed here is that each stimulus selectively recruits its own alternatives (Garner, 1962, 1970) and is interpreted in a rich context of remembered and constructed representations of what it could have been, might have been, or should have been. Thus, each event brings its own frame of reference into being. We also explore the idea that knowledge of categories (e.g., "encounters with Jim") can be derived on-line by selectively evoking stored representations of discrete episodes and exemplars. The present model assumes that a number of representations can be recruited in parallel, by either a stimulus event or anread more
Citations
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Journal ArticleDOI
The role of a posteriori victim information in judgments of blame and sanction
Mark D. Alicke,Teresa L. Davis +1 more
TL;DR: This paper found that a posteriori information indicating that the victim was an innocent person as opposed to a dangerous criminal led to heightened ratings of actor blame and that this effect was due specifically to the victim's criminal nature rather than to a globally negative dispositional evaluation of the victim.
Journal ArticleDOI
Splitting Up Value: A Critical Review of Residual Income Theories
TL;DR: The notion of residual income is defined as the surplus profit that residues after a capital charge (opportunity cost) has been covered as discussed by the authors, which is a generalization of the concept of profit.
Journal ArticleDOI
"What Goes Up Must Come Down"—How Charts Influence Decisions to Buy and Sell Stocks
Thomas Mussweiler,Karl Schneller +1 more
TL;DR: In this paper, five experiments examine how charts depicting past stock prices influence investing decisions and find that investors are more likely to buy and less likely to sell stocks depicted in a chart with a salient high than a low.
Journal ArticleDOI
The past, present and future of research on judgment and decision making in sport
TL;DR: A review of judgment and decision-making in sports can be found in this article, where a focus of the review is relating the European perspective of the co-authors into a larger frame of areas of interest within the last 50 years and beyond.
Book ChapterDOI
Mind as an anticipatory device: for a theory of expectations
TL;DR: A Cognitive Anatomy of expectations, their reduction in terms of more elementary ingredients: beliefs and goals is presented, and those ingredients will be considered in their ‘quantitative' dimension: the value of the Goal, the strength of the Beliefs.
References
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Statistical Power Analysis for the Behavioral Sciences
TL;DR: The concepts of power analysis are discussed in this paper, where Chi-square Tests for Goodness of Fit and Contingency Tables, t-Test for Means, and Sign Test are used.
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Self-efficacy: toward a unifying theory of behavioral change.
TL;DR: An integrative theoretical framework to explain and to predict psychological changes achieved by different modes of treatment is presented and findings are reported from microanalyses of enactive, vicarious, and emotive mode of treatment that support the hypothesized relationship between perceived self-efficacy and behavioral changes.
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Belief, Attitude, Intention and Behavior: An Introduction to Theory and Research
Martin Fishbein,Icek Ajzen +1 more
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An inventory for measuring depression
TL;DR: The difficulties inherent in obtaining consistent and adequate diagnoses for the purposes of research and therapy have been pointed out and a wide variety of psychiatric rating scales have been developed.
Book ChapterDOI
Prospect theory: an analysis of decision under risk
Daniel Kahneman,Amos Tversky +1 more
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors present a critique of expected utility theory as a descriptive model of decision making under risk, and develop an alternative model, called prospect theory, in which value is assigned to gains and losses rather than to final assets and in which probabilities are replaced by decision weights.