As part of a long-term project aimed at designing classroom interventions to motivate language learners, we have searched for a motivation model that could serve as a theoretical basis for the methodological applications. We have found that none of the existing models we considered were entirely adequate for our purpose for three reasons: (1) they did not provide a sufficiently comprehensive and detailed summary of all the relevant motivational influences on classroom behaviour; (2) they tended to focus on how and why people choose certain courses of action, while ignoring or playing down the importance of motivational sources of executing goal-directed behaviour; and (3) they did not do justice to the fact that motivation is not static but dynamically evolving and changing in time, making it necessary for motivation constructs to contain a featured temporal axis. Consequently, partly inspired by Heckhausen and Kuhl's 'Action Control Theory', we have developed a new 'Process Model of L2 Motivation', which is intended both to account for the dynamics of motivational change in time and to synthesise many of the most important motivational conceptualisations to date. In this paper we describe the main components of this model, also listing a number of its limitations which need to be resolved in future research.

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Self-regulation and ego threat: Motivated cognition, self deception, and destructive goal setting.

Motivation in action: A process model of L2 motivation

guslu. 198ö; Karnio"l & Rois, 1996; Karoly, 1993; Kruglan.kil ibgO, Mclntosh & Martin, 1992; Tetlock, 1992) on thii theme. The reasons for this are manifold' Some are rooted in the theoretical developments in the psychology of motivation (see Geen, 1995;-Gollwitzer, t99l; Heckh"or"t, 1991; Kuhl, 1983), others within the impact of the cognitive revolution on social psychology (see Fiske, f9ö3b; Higgins & Bargh, 1987; Smith, 1994; Stevens &

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Goal Effects on Action and Cognition

Drawing from self-affirmation theory (C. M. Steele, 1988) and L. L. Martin and A. Tesser's (1989, 1996) theory of ruminative thinking, the authors hypothesized that people stop ruminating about a frustrated goal when they can affirm an important aspect of the self. In 3 experiments participants were given failure feedback on an alleged IQ test. Failure feedback led to increased rumination (i.e., accessibility of goal-related thoughts) compared with no-failure conditions (Studies 1 and 2). Rumination was reduced when participants could self-affirm after failure (Studies 1 and 2) or before failure (Study 3). In Study 3, self-affirmation led to increased positive affect on a disguised mood test and more positive name letter evaluations. Moreover, the obtained increase in positive affect mediated the effect of self-affirmation on rumination. It is concluded that self-affirmation may be an effective way to stop ruminative thinking.

The Cessation of Rumination Through Self-Affirmation

Background. This paper focuses on the temporal dimension of student motivation; that is, rather than considering motivation a stable emotional or mental state, the emphasis is placed on portraying motivation processes as they happen in time. Aims. 1. To account for the dynamic development of motivation in prolonged learning processes such as the mastery of school subjects. 2. To discuss the practical implications of a process-oriented approach for professional practice. Method. Theoretical analysis and model building, drawing on the findings of empirical investigations. Analysis. It is argued that the ‘ time’ dimension is relevant to the study of motivation in at least two crucial areas: to account for (a) how motivation is generated and (b) how it fluctuates and further develops over time. A focus on the temporal dimension is particularly important for the understanding of student motivation because in prolonged learning activities such as mastering a school subject a major motivational function is to maintain the motivational impetus for a considerable period (often several years) against a number of distracting influences. In order to illustrate the temporal conception of motivation, a ‘ Process Model of Student Motivation’ is presented and various theoretical pros and cons are discussed. Finally, practical implications are demonstrated by providing a taxonomy of motivational strategies rooted in the process-oriented approach, with one specific aspect, the students’ action control and self-motivation, specially highlighted in order to show the compatibility of the approach with current research on student self-regulation.

Motivation in action: towards a process-oriented conceptualisation of student motivation.

Is it better to be realistic or optimistic? A realistic outlook improves chances to negotiate the environment successfully, whereas an optimistic outlook places priority on feeling good. But are realistic and optimistic outlooks necessarily in conflict? The author suggests that the fuzzy nature of accuracy typically places only loose boundaries on what it means to be realistic. As a result, there are many forms of optimism that do not, in principle, yield unrealistic assessments. Nevertheless, there remain numerous "optimistic biases" that do involve self-deception, or convincing oneself of desired beliefs without appropriate reality checks. The author describes several ways that realistic and unrealistic optimism can be differentiated and explores the impact of this distinction for current views of optimism. This critique reveals how positive psychology may benefit from a focus on personal meaning and knowledge as they relate to making the most of life.

Self-regulation and ego threat: Motivated cognition, self deception, and destructive goal setting.

Citations

Motivation in action: A process model of L2 motivation

Goal Effects on Action and Cognition

The Cessation of Rumination Through Self-Affirmation

Motivation in action: towards a process-oriented conceptualisation of student motivation.

In search of realistic optimism. Meaning, knowledge, and warm fuzziness.

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