Showing papers on "Human intelligence published in 1985"

Introduction to Artificial Intelligence

Abstract: This book is an introduction on artificial intelligence. Topics include reasoning under uncertainty, robot plans, language understanding, and learning. The history of the field as well as intellectual ties to related disciplines are presented.

Handbook of Intelligence: Theories, Measurements, and Applications

Abstract: THEORIES: Genetic Determinants of Intelligence Cognitive Approaches to Intelligence Neurological Foundations of Intelligence Genetic Epistemology and the Development of Intelligence General Intelligence: An Integration of Factor, Test, and Simplex Theory The Structure- of-Intellect Model Remodeling Old Models of Intelligence Intelligence: A Life-Span Developmental Perspective MEASUREMENTS: The Validity of Tests of Intelligence Environment and IQ The Controversy Related to the Use of Intelligence Tests Infant Intelligence and Its Assessment Clinical Assessment of Children's Intelligence with the Wechsler Scales New Directions in Intelligence Testing: The Kaufman Assessment Battery for Children Mental Measurement of Minority Group Children Transcultural Intellectual Assessment: Performance by Hispanics on the Wechsler Scales Toward a Psychology of Giftedness: A Concept in Search of Development Assessment of Mentally Retarded Individuals Group Tests of Intelligence APPLICATIONS: Intelligence and Mental Health Clinical Applications Clinical Uses of the WAIS-R: Base Rates of Differences Between VIQ and PIQ in the WAIS-R Standardization Sample Educational Applications of Intelligence Testing Index.

Piaget, stone tools and the evolution of human intelligence.

Abstract: Archaeology can be used to study the evolution of human intelligence but to do so archaeologists must employ well established theories of intelligence. Piagetian theory is especially useful because it is evolutionary in scope and, just as important, can be used to analyze stone tools, the most abundant residue of prehistoric behavior. Using Piagetian method to analyze artefact geometries, the author has been able to assess the intelligence of two groups of early hominids. Oldowan tools required very simple spatial concepts, indicating an intelligence not much greater than that of modern apes. This suggests that human evolution prior to 1.5 million years ago may not have involved selection for intelligence. Later Acheulean artefacts, on the other hand, required sophisticated spatial concepts, indicating that an essentially modern intelligence had evolved by 300,000 years ago.

Human Intelligence: The Model Is the Message

Abstract: Theories of intelligence, and some of the research testing them, are designed to answer three basic questions about intelligence: (i) What is the relation of intelligence to the internal world of the individual? (ii) What is the relation of intelligence to the external world of the individual? (iii) What is the relation of intelligence to experience? Various models of the mind underlying the theories have been proposed; the strengths and limitations of these models are assessed. A theory that addresses all three questions simultaneously is the triarchic theory.

The U.s. Intelligence Community

Abstract: Intelligence National Intelligence Organizations Defense Department Intelligence Organizations Military Service Intelligence Organizations Unified Command Intelligence Organizations Civilian Intelligence Organizations Imagery Collection, Interpretation, and Dissemination Signals Intelligence Measurement and Signature Intelligence Space Surveillance Human Intelligence Open Sources, Technical Surveillance and Emplaced Sensors, and Materiel Exploitation Intelligence Sharing Analysis and Production Counterintelligence Covert Action Management and Direction Managing Intelligence Collection and Covert Actions Managing Information Access and Analysis Issues and Challenges

Response to novelty: continuity versus discontinuity in the developmental course of intelligence.

Abstract: In this article, we have reviewed research in diverse domains that has provided evidence for the assertion that intelligence can be construed, in part, as a response to novelty. We began by distinguishing two types of continuities, namely, the continuity in the fundamental nature of intelligence throughout development and the relative stability of individual differences in intellectual abilities at various ages. Current empirical and theoretical work has culminated in a proposition that the actual nature of intelligence is discontinuous, at least in the early years of life, and that individual differences in intellectual functions are unstable (Bayley, 1970; McCall, 1979a,b). Research on aspects of an infant's response to novelty and the relationship between this response and later intellectual functioning was examined and interpreted as reflective not only of one element of continuity in the actual nature of intelligence throughout development but also of a stable source of individual differences in intellectual development. Other literature reviewed suggested that the interest in and ability to deal with novelty remains an integral component of individual differences in intelligence throughout the life span. A framework for conceptualizing intelligence as, in part, the response to novelty was offered to provide some synthesis to the literature we have reviewed on the relationship between one's response to novelty and intelligence across the life span. This framework comprises two major aspects: a motivational aspect, referring to interest in, curiosity about, and preference for novelty, and an information-extraction aspect, referring to component processes that are involved in the acquisition of novel information. These two aspects of dealing with novelty were evident in the literature that was reviewed above. They seem integral to intellectual development. We are not alone in positing the importance of one's response to novelty as a major element of individual differences in intelligence across the life span. Other researchers and theorists from diverse disciplines within psychology, such as artificial intelligence, Piagetian psychology, and psychometric intelligence, as well as layperson's commonsense notions about intelligence, have also indicated the importance of the ability to deal with novelty in intelligent functioning. We view the motivational and information-processing response to novelty as a source of stability in intellectual functions across development and as an element of continuity in the actual nature of intelligence.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 400 WORDS)

The Emergence of Artificial Intelligence: Learning to Learn

Abstract: The classical approach to the acquisition of knowledge and reason in artificial intelligence is to program the facts and rules into the machine. Unfortunately, the amount of time required to program the equivalent of human intelligence is prohibitively large. An alternative approach allows an automaton to learn to solve problems through iterative trial-and-error interaction with its environment, much as humans do. To solve a problem posed by the environment, the automaton generates a sequence or collection of responses based on its experience. The environment evaluates the effectiveness of this collection, and reports its evaluation to the automaton. The automaton modifies its strategy accordingly, and then generates a new collection of responses. This process is repeated until the automaton converges to the correct collection of responses. The principles underlying this paradigm, known as collective learning systems theory are explained and applied to a simple game, demonstrating robust learning and dynamic adaptivity.

The Cognitive Computer: On Language, Learning, & Artificial Intelligence

Abstract: This book has two purposes. First, its intent is to inform the public about the subject of Attificial Intelligence, not from the perspective of a science-oriented journalist, who may or may not understand what he or she has seen and read, but from the viewpoint of one who is involved deeply in the subject. Second, it seems important to ponder the reasons why this obscure field has hit the front pages. The public has discovered AI but according to the author, is not quite sure what it is. The book tries to address 3 questions; 1. What do we have to know about computers in order to live in a world that is full of them. 2. What can we learn about what it means to be intelligent through our development of computers that can understand. 3. How will intelligent computers affect the world we live in.

A Triarchic Theory of Mental Retardation

Abstract: Publisher Summary This chapter presents a theory of mental retardation that accounts for the apparent inconsistency between the ability of Sarason's charges to plan a successful escape, on the one hand, and yet utterly to fail the mazes test, on the other The theory is a special case of a more general triarchic theory of human intelligence As its name implies, the theory consists of three parts: one part relates the concept of intelligence to the internal world of the individual; a second part relates intelligence to the external world of the individual; and a third part provides something of a bridge between the two It is argue that all three parts of the triarchy must be taken into account in understanding and assessing mental retardation, and that in not doing so, existing theories tend to be incomplete The chapter presents the triarchic theory and shows how it can be applied to understanding the nature of mental retardation Some of the evidence seems to support the theory, or at least elements of it

Science, technology, and intelligence

Abstract: : The scientific concept of intelligence has been heavily influenced by the technology of measurement. In a sense, the variables that we can measure have been made the operational definition of intelligence. This approach contrasts to a deductive approach, in which a theory of cognition in general is used to derive the sort of measurements that must be taken to describe an individual's cognitive competence. The 'cognitive science' approach to cognition in general can be used as a base theory. The base theory then generates requirements on measurements of individual intelligence that are different from the sorts of measures that might be taken if the purpose of testing is to predict performance in some (ill-defined) criterion situation. The use of theory-defined measures of individual mental competence is contrasted to the use of measures that are justified in terms of their predictive validity.

2 – The Representation and Processing of Information in Real-Time Verbal Comprehension*

Abstract: : This article presents a description of a theory and data stemming from a newly developed research program to explain real-time comprehension. The program particularly seeks an understanding of what happens in real time when a person processes verbal relations, as, for example, in a synonyms test. The article is divided into three major parts: first several alternate approaches to understanding the nature of verbal comprehension are discussed, touching on both the positive contributions and the limitations of each, then a theory of real- time verbal comprehension is presented, together with data supporting it, finally, the authors discuss the implications of the theory and data for the design and analysis of mental ability tests. Keywords: Human intelligence.

Artificial intelligence and expert systems research and their possible impact on information science education

Abstract: Applications from artificial intelligence and expert systems research will most likely be incorporated in future information services to improve decision making, to solve problems normally thought to require human intelligence, and to achieve levels of performance previously obtainable only by human experts. Expert systems are creating new methods of replicating and multiplying the value of human expertise while preserving this knowledge in computer storage. The successes achieved by these early systems have been modest, but they hold great promise, and they are attracting widespread interest. Information scientists are exploring potential applications of artificial intelligence as guidance for the development of new information services such as aids in formulating search requests, as general problem treatment schemes, and as expert systems for library management, cataloguing, and reference. The role of the library is changing, and schools need to modify their programmes to prepare students for new roles and new careers in information transfer.

Artificial intelligence: out of the lab and into business

Abstract: Computers are now capable of simulating some of the aspects of human intelligence. The object of an expert system, for example, is to capture all the knowledge accumulated by a human who has achieved mastery in a particular domain, and to apply that knowledge to given situations in much the same ways as the human expert does. Artificial intelligence is destined to evolve in many directions, some of which are only dimly perceived today.

Experience, Memory and Intelligence

Abstract: Many traditional accounts of experience suggest that memory plays a crucial role. But what, precisely, is the nature of memory? What is its role in experience? As a non-technical, non-theoretical notion, "memory" can signify not only the ability to relate now to things that have happened in the past, but more fundamentally, it is involved to some extent even in the ability to perceive. My ability to perceive that this is a hand I see before me requires that I have had experiences of hands before, perhaps also that I have learned the concept "hand" before, and that I be able to apply this infor mation, previously acquired, in the present situation. So even intelligent perception requires memory.2 Thus we are led one step deeper. If percep tion is fundamental to experience, then so is memory. I emphasize, though, that memory is correctly to be understood as cen tral to intelligent experience, if at all, only in a non-technical or non theoretical sense of the notion. I emphasize this because the technical or theoretical accounts of memory that have been given are spurious. They do not explain memory in a plausible way, and therefore they do not help in understanding either intelligence or experience in general. What characterizes most technical or theoretical accounts of memory is their reliance upon an internal storage model. Psychologists and neurophysiologists have suggested neural traces (either dynamic or static) as the mechanism for this storage, and designers of aritificial intelligence have relied upon the same general model, instantiated magnetically or elec tronically instead of neurally, to do the same job. Both psychology and ar tificial intelligence design have heretofore relied, without much question, upon the idea that memory is to be understood as a matter of internal storage. In what follows, I shall first sketch the most important reasons for skepticism about this model, and I shall then propose an outline of an alter native way of talking bout memory. This will provide an appropriate framework for suggesting a few implications for future work in artificial in telligence.

Parallel processing in artificial intelligence

Abstract: Intelligence, whether in a machine or in a living creature, is a mixture of many abilities. Our current artificial intelligence (AI) technology does a good job of emulating some aspects of human intelligence, generally those things that, when they are done by people, seem to be serial and conscious. AI is very far from being able to match other human abilities, generally those things that seem to happen “in a flash” and without any feeling of sustained mental effort. We are left with an unbalanced technology that is powerful enough to be of real commercial value, but that is very far from exhibiting intelligence in any broad, human-like sense of the word. It is ironic that AI’s successes have come in emulating the specialized performance of human experts, and yet we cannot begin to approach the common sense of a five-year-old child or the sensory abilities and physical coordination of a rat.

Our Future in the Cosmos: Computers

Abstract: The future of computers and the computerization of society are discussed. Speculation regarding the nature and appropriate application of computer intelligence and human intelligence is given.

Why Do They Call Them “IQ Tests”?:

Abstract: Psychological tests, in general, measure defined characteristics of people. It is unclear from the terminology, however, whether “IQ tests” measure a characteristic called intelligence or, going with the logic of the expression, measure a score (or index) called an intelligence quotient. We submit that instruments which are so labeled are misnamed and misused also when those who apply them do so basically to gain an IQ to the neglect of the important features of intellectual functioning that can be gained from a test of intelligence. The nonprofessional who has a personal or occupational interest in the assessment of intelligence should be made aware of the potential contributions of intelligence tests and the proper role of IQ.