Showing papers on "Ideology published in 2007"

Ideology and Ideological State Apparatuses

Abstract: We commonly call rehgious ideology, ethical ideology, legal ideology, poli1ical ideology, CIC., SO many "world outlooks." Of course, assuming that "C do not live one of these ideologies as !he trulh (e.g. "behc,c" in God, Duty, Justice, CIC. • .), "c admu that I.he ideology we arc di9CUSSmg from a crittcal point of v1cw,cnmming it as the c1hnologist examines the m)'ths of a "primitive society," 1ha1 1hesc "world outlooks" arc largdy imaginary, i c. do not "correspond to rcalif)." Ho,.c,er, while admining Wt !he) do correspond to reality, i.e. that the) constitute an illusion, we admi1 that they do mal.c allusion to reality, and th•1 1hey need only be "in1crprcted" to disco,cr !he reality of the "orld behind their imagina11 rcprcscntauon of that ,.o,ld (ideology = 1/l,,s10,,f •llus-). There arc different types of interpretation, the most famous of which arc the "'"hanim, type, current in the cightccn1h century (God is the imaginary representation of the real King), and !he "lttrrtfffltu11," interpretation, inaugurated by !he carli

Ideologically motivated activism: How activist groups influence corporate social change activities

Abstract: Using insights from the social movement literature and institutional change theory, we explore how activism influences corporate social change activities. As the responsibility for addressing a variety of social issues is transferred from the state to the private sector, activist groups increasingly challenge firms to take up such issues, seeking to influence the nature and level of corporate social change activities. Eventually, they aim to bring about field-level change. We argue that ideological differences among activist groups motivate them to choose different influence tactics to support their claims.

Uncertainty–Identity Theory

Abstract: While I write this chapter, millions of people in the Darfur province of Sudan have been terrorized off their land; the entire population of Iraq has little idea what the future of their country will be; survivors of hurricane Katrina are dispersed across the United States; people in Britain are anxious about immigration and are toying with the idea of supporting the British National Party; people in a small town in Tasmania wait to hear if members of their community have been found alive in a mine collapse; air travelers the world over have no idea what new security arrangements await them when they get to the airport; and we all wonder about the consequences of further escalation in the price of oil and of the standoff over Iran's uranium enrichment program. The world is an uncertain place, it always has been, and these uncertainties can make it very difficult to predict or plan our lives and to feel sure about the type of people we are. In this chapter, I describe how feelings of uncertainty, particularly about or related to self, motivate people to identify with social groups and to choose new groups with, or configure existing groups to have, certain properties that best reduce, control, or protect from feelings of uncertainty. I consider this uncertainty–identity theory to be a development of the motivational component of social identity theory. It addresses why, when, and how strongly people identify with groups, and why groups may have particular generic properties in certain contexts. Of particular relevance to contemporary postmodern society, uncertainty reduction theory provides an account of zealotry and the cult of the “true believer” in the thrall of ideology and powerful leadership—an account of conditions that may spawn extremism, a silo mentality, and a loss of moral or ethical perspective. In this chapter, I describe uncertainty–identity theory and some conceptual elaborations and applications, review direct and indirect empirical tests, and locate the theory in the context of related ideas and theories in social psychology. I start with a historical sketch of why, when, and how uncertainty–identity theory was developed, then go on to discuss uncertainty reduction as a motivation for human behavior. I then detail the process by which group identification reduces uncertainty and describe a program of studies showing that people who feel uncertain are more likely to identify and identify more strongly with groups. High‐entitativity groups are best equipped to reduce uncertainty through identification—entitativity moderates the uncertainty–identification relation. I discuss this idea and describe research that supports it, and then extend the analysis to deal with extremism and totalistic groups—describing how extreme uncertainty may encourage strong identification (zealotry, fanaticism, being a true believer) with groups that are structured in a totalistic fashion. Again I describe some research supporting this idea. The next section deals with extensions, applications, and implications of uncertainty–identity theory. I discuss the relation between depersonalization and self‐projection processes in uncertainty‐motivated group identification, and then, in a subsection entitled central members, marginal members, leaders, and deviants, I focus on the role of group prototypicality in uncertainty reduction processes. The role of trust, the relation between uncertainty, identity, and ideology, and the role of uncertainty in social mobilization are also discussed. The final section, before concluding comments, discusses other theories, approaches, and topics that deal with constructs related to those discussed by uncertainty–identity theory. Specifically, I discuss uncertainty as a state versus a trait, with a focus on the constructs of need for cognitive closure and uncertainty orientation; the role played by culture in uncertainty; and the relevance of terror management, compensatory conviction, self‐verification, and system justification.

The Sociology of the Radical Right

Abstract: During the past two decades, the radical right has reemerged as an electoral force in Western Europe, as well as in other stable democracies such as Canada, Australia, and New Zealand. Aside from discussing the ideology of this party family and how it relates to older forms of right-wing radicalism and extremism, such as fascism, this review deals with the question of how the emergence of radical right-wing parties can be explained and why such parties have been considerably more successful among voters in some countries than in others. Possible explanations are grouped into two parts: The first consists of so-called demand-centered explanations, that is, explanations that focus on changing preferences, beliefs, and attitudes among voters. The second consists of so-called supply-side explanations, that is, explanations that focus on political opportunity structures and party organizational factors.

The Sociology of the Radical Right

Abstract: During the past two decades, the radical right has reemerged as an electoral force in Western Europe, as well as in other stable democracies such as Canada, Australia, and New Zealand. Aside from discussing the ideology of this party family and how it relates to older forms of right-wing radicalism and extremism, such as fascism, this review deals with the question of how the emergence of radical right-wing parties can be explained and why such parties have been considerably more successful among voters in some countries than in others. Possible explanations are grouped into two parts: The first consists of so-called demand-centered explanations, that is, explanations that focus on changing preferences, beliefs, and attitudes among voters. The second consists of so-called supply-side explanations, that is, explanations that focus on political opportunity structures and party organizational factors.

A Scaling Model for Estimating Time-Series Policy Positions from Texts

Abstract: However, existing text-based methods face challenges in producing valid and reliable time-series data. This article proposes a scaling algorithm called WORDFISH to estimate policy positions based on word frequencies in texts. The technique allows researchers to locate parties in one or multiple elections. We demonstrate the algorithm by estimating the positions of German political parties from 1990 to 2005 using word frequencies in party manifestos. The extracted positions reflect changes in the party system more accurately than existing time-series estimates. In addition, the method allows researchers to examine which words are important for placing parties on the left and on the right. We find that words with strong political connotations are the best discriminators between parties. Finally, a series of robustness checks demonstrate that the estimated positions are insensitive to distributional assumptions and document selection.

Ideological cultures and media discourses on scientific knowledge: re-reading news on climate change:

Abstract: Focusing on the representation of climate change in the British “quality press,” this article argues that the discursive (re)construction of scientific claims in the media is strongly entangled with ideological standpoints. Understood here as a set of ideas and values that legitimate a program of action vis-a-vis a given social and political order, ideology works as a powerful selection device in deciding what is scientific news, i.e. what the relevant “facts” are, and who are the authorized “agents of definition” of science matters. The representation of scientific knowledge has important implications for evaluating political programs and assessing the responsibility of both governments and the public in addressing climate change.

Feminist Critical Discourse Analysis: Articulating a Feminist Discourse Praxis1

Abstract: This article outlines a ‘feminist critical discourse analysis’ at the nexus of critical discourse analysis and feminist studies, with the aim of advancing rich and nuanced analyses of the complex workings of power and ideology in discourse in sustaining hierarchically gendered social orders. This is especially pertinent in the present time; it is recognized that operations of gender ideology and institutionalized power asymmetries between (and among) groups of women and men are complexly intertwined with other social identities and are variable across cultures. Gender ideology and power asymmetries in late modern societies also have become increasingly more subtle and, at the same time, as a result of backlash against feminism, have re-emerged with a new blatancy. The article offers a rationale for highlighting a feminist perspective in CDA, and proposes five key principles for a feminist discourse praxis. In concluding, a brief analysis and discussion of some data on postfeminism is provided, illustratin...

Schooling and environmental education: Contradictions in purpose and practice

Abstract: A number of authors have observed a pronounced discrepancy between the problem‐solving and action‐oriented goals associated with the contemporary philosophy of environmental education and an emphas...

Curriculum Theory: Conflicting Visions and Enduring Concerns

Abstract: Preface 1. Introduction to Curriculum Ideologies Your Beliefs About Curriculum The Curriculum Ideologies Curriculum Workers The Nature of the Curriculum Ideologies 2. Scholar Academic Ideology Scholar Academic Curricula Curriculum and the Disciplines The Academic Disciplines Curriculum Issues Historical Context Aims Knowledge The Child Learning Teaching Evaluation Concluding Perspective 3. Social Efficiency Ideology A Scientific Technique of Curriculum Making Programmed Curriculum and the Behavioral Engineer The Analogy Social Orientation Objectives Historical Context Aims Knowledge Learning The Child Teaching Evaluation Concluding Perspective 4. Learner Centered Ideology The Ideal School Learners The Growing Individual The Learning Person The Curriculum: Unit of Work Versus School Subject Historical Context Aims The Child Learning Teaching Knowledge Evaluation Concluding Perspective 5. Social Reconstruction Ideology Highlander Sixth-Grade Social Reconstruction Mathematics Society and Reconstruction Reconstruction Through Education Historical Context Aims The Child Learning Teaching Knowledge Evaluation Concluding Perspective 6. A Comparative Overview of Curriculum Ideologies Comparative Summary Other Parameters Concluding Perspective 7. Individual Perspectives on Curriculum Ideologies Curriculum Life Histories Can People Believe in More Than One Ideology? Why Do Educators Change Ideologies? Concluding Perspective Appendix: Curriculum Ideologies Inventory References Index About the Author Why Do Educators Change Ideologies? Concluding Perspective Appendix Curriculum Ideologies Inventory Instructions for Graphing the Results of the Inventory Curriculum Ideologies Inventory Graphing Sheet Instructions for Interpreting the Results of the Inventory Example of a Completed Graph for the Curriculum Ideologies Inventory References Index About the Author

The Social Construction of Sex Trafficking: Ideology and Institutionalization of a Moral Crusade

Abstract: The issue of sex trafficking has become increasingly politicized in recent years due to the efforts of an influential moral crusade. This article examines the social construction of sex trafficking (and prostitution more generally) in the discourse of leading activists and organizations within the crusade, and concludes that the central claims are problematic, unsubstantiated, or demonstrably false. The analysis documents the increasing endorsement and institutionalization of crusade ideology in U.S. government policy and practice.

Nations Matter: Culture, History and the Cosmopolitan Dream

Abstract: Craig Calhoun, one of the most respected social scientists in the world, re-examines nationalism in light of post-1989 enthusiasm for globalization and the new anxieties of the twenty-first century. Nations Matter argues that pursuing a purely postnational politics is premature at best and possibly dangerous. Calhoun argues that, rather than wishing nationalism away, it is important to transform it. One key is to distinguish the ideology of nationalism as fixed and inherited identity from the development of public projects that continually remake the terms of national integration. Standard concepts like 'civic' vs. 'ethnic' nationalism can get in the way unless they are critically re-examined – as an important chapter in this book does. This book is essential reading for undergraduate and postgraduate students of sociology, history, political theory and all subjects concerned with nationalism, globalization, and cosmopolitanism.

Washing the Brain - Metaphor and Hidden Ideology

Abstract: Contemporary metaphor theory has recently begun to address the relation between metaphor, culture and ideology. In this wide-ranging book, Andrew Goatly, using lexical data from his database Metalude , investigates how conceptual metaphor themes construct our thinking and social behaviour in fields as diverse as architecture, engineering, education, genetics, ecology, economics, politics, industrial time-management, medicine, immigration, race, and sex. He argues that metaphor themes are created not only through the universal body but also through cultural experience, so that an apparently universal metaphor such as event-structure as realized in English grammar is, in fact, culturally relative, compared with e.g. the construal of 'cause and effect' in the Algonquin language Blackfoot. Moreover, event-structure as a model is both scientifically reactionary and, as the basis for technological mega-projects, has proved environmentally harmful. Furthermore, the ideologies of early capitalism created or exploited a selection of metaphor themes historically traceable through Hobbes, Hume, Smith, Malthus and Darwin. These metaphorical concepts support neo-Darwinian and neo-conservative ideologies apparent at the beginning of the 21 st century, ideologies underpinning our social and environmental crises. The conclusion therefore recommends skepticism of metaphor’s reductionist tendencies.

Bilingualism as Ideology and Practice

Abstract: Bilingualism is today as much a topic of academic research and public debate as it has ever been in the period since the end of World War II, as globalization and the new economy, migration and the expanded and rapid circulation of information, keep the question at the forefront of economic, political, social and educational concerns. The purpose of this book is to explore one particular set of approaches to the topic which seems particularly useful for understanding what bilingualism might mean today, in this context of social change, and how new understandings of it, as ideology and practice, also contribute to linguistic and social theory. In particular, the book aims to move the field of bilingualism studies away from a ‘common-sense’, but in fact highly ideologized, view of bilingualism as the coexistence of two linguistic systems, and to develop a critical perspective which allows for a better grasp on the ways in which language practices are socially and politically embedded. The aim is to move discussions of bilingualism away from a focus on the whole bounded units of code and community, and towards a more processual and materialist approach which privileges language as social practice, speakers as social actors and boundaries as products of social action.

Postcolonial Writers in the Global Literary Marketplace

Abstract: I have just made a series of connections between Derek Walcott’s aesthetic concerns, his established authorial tendencies, and the multiple social and political locations within which his career has developed. The case studies in Part II work in a similar way. My attention to writers’ biographies and their relationships to the literary marketplace is at odds with the notion, common throughout much of the twentieth century, and even now possessing some nostalgic power, that successful literature should register the absence of the author as its most apparent creator. As R. Jackson Wilson points out, through multiple influences from fin de siecle art for art’s sake ideology to New Critical formalism, from semiotics to poststructuralism, the ‘true artist’ has often been thought to operate as though ‘the cost of his success was a kind of self-denial, a successful withholding of the self from the work.’2

How to read Lacan

Abstract: The How to Read series provides a context and an explanation that will facilitate and enrich your understanding of texts vital to the canon. These books use excerpts from the major texts to explain essential topics, such as Jacques Lacan's core ideas about enjoyment, which re-created our concept of psychoanalysis. Lacan's motto of the ethics of psychoanalysis involves a profound paradox. Traditionally, psychoanalysis was expected to allow the patient to overcome the obstacles which prevented access to "normal" sexual enjoyment; today, however, we are bombarded by different versions of the injunction "Enjoy!" Psychoanalysis is the only discourse in which you are allowed not to enjoy. Slavoj Zizek's passionate defense of Lacan reasserts Lacan's ethical urgency. For Lacan, psychoanalysis is a procedure of reading and each chapter reads a passage from Lacan as a tool to interpret another text from philosophy, art or popular ideology.

Participation: the ascendancy of a buzzword in the neo-liberal era

Abstract: Participation was originally conceived as part of a counter-hegemonic approach to radical social transformation and, as such, represented a challenge to the status quo Paradoxically, throughout the 1980s and 1990s, ‘participation’ gained legitimacy within the institutional development world to the extent of achieving buzzword status The precise manipulations required to convert a radical proposal into something that could serve the neo-liberal world order led to participation's political decapitation Reduced to a series of methodological packages and techniques, participation would slowly lose its philosophical and ideological meaning In order to make the approach and methodology serve counter-hegemonic processes of grassroots resistance and transformation, these meanings desperately need to be recovered This calls for participation to be re-articulated within broader processes of social and political struggle in order to facilitate the recovery of social transformation in the world of twenty-first c

Christian moderns: freedom and fetish in the mission encounter

Abstract: Across much of the postcolonial world, Christianity has often become inseparable from ideas and practices linking the concept of modernity to that of human emancipation. To explore these links, Webb Keane undertakes a rich ethnographic study of the century-long encounter, from the colonial Dutch East Indies to post-independence Indonesia, among Calvinist missionaries, their converts, and those who resist conversion. Keane's analysis of their struggles over such things as prayers, offerings, and the value of money challenges familiar notions about agency. Through its exploration of language, materiality, and morality, this book illuminates a wide range of debates in social and cultural theory. It demonstrates the crucial place of Christianity in semiotic ideologies of modernity and sheds new light on the importance of religion in colonial and postcolonial histories

The Demand and Supply of Participation: social psychological correlates of participation in a social movement

Abstract: This paper provides a review of recent developments in the social psychology of movement participation. It begins with a description of forms of participation and continues with a discussion of participation in the life course. The centre piece, however, concerns the dynamics of participation. Elaborating on these dynamics the ‘demand-supply’ metaphor is borrowed from economics. Participation in a social movement is defined as the outcome of a process of mobilization that brings a demand for political protest that exists in a society together with a supply of opportunities to take part in protest offered by movement organizations. The social psychological transaction that is taking place between an individual considering to participate in a social movement activity and a movement organization trying to persuade the individual to take part in its activities is conceptualised in terms of three fundamental motives: people may want to change their circumstances (instrumentality), they may want to act as members of their group (identity), or they may want to give meaning to their world and express their views and feelings (ideology). The demand- and supplyside of participation are discussed in terms of these three motives. Steps in the process of mobilization are analysed. Keywords Participation, social movement, social psychology, political psychology, mobilization process Resumo Este artigo faz uma revisao do recente desenvolvimento da psicologia social dos movimentos sociais. Inicia-se com uma descricao das formas de participacao e continua com uma descricao da participacao na vida social. A questao central, no entanto, diz respeito a dinâmica de participacao. Palavras-Chave Participacao, movimentos sociais, psicologia social, psicologia politica, processo de mobilizacao

Passive and Assertive Secularism: Historical Conditions, Ideological Struggles, and State Policies toward Religion

Abstract: Why do secular states pursue substantially different policies toward religion? The United States, France, and Turkey are secular states that lack any official religion and have legal systems free from religious control. The French and Turkish states have banned students' headscarves in public schools, whereas the U.S. has allowed students to wear religious symbols and attire. Using the method of process tracing, the author argues that state policies toward religion are the result of ideological struggles. In France and Turkey the dominant ideology is "assertive secularism," which aims to exclude religion from the public sphere, while in the U.S., it is "passive secularism," which tolerates public visibility of religion. Whether assertive or passive secularism became dominant in a particular case was the result of the particular historical conditions during the secular state-building period, especially the presence or absence of an ancien regime based on a marriage of monarchy and hegemonic religion.

Multicultural and Colorblind Ideology, Stereotypes, and Ethnocentrism among Black and

Abstract: We examined Blacks' and Whites' perceptions of group variability and positivity as well as their beliefs about the extent to which multiculturalism and colorblindness would improve intergroup relations. In two studies, responses to questionnaires indicated that the tendency to endorse multiculturalism more than colorblindness was greater among Blacks than Whites; Blacks consistently endorsed multiculturalism more than colorblindness and Whites endorsed colorblindness more than did Blacks. Both studies also revealed evidence of out-group homogeneity and ethnocentrism. Stronger endorsement of multiculturalism relative to colorblindness predicted stronger stereotypes among Blacks, whereas stronger endorsement of colorblindness relative to multiculturalism predicted stronger stereotypes among Whites. In Study 2, stronger endorsement of multiculturalism relative to colorblindness predicted less ethnocentrism; this relationship did not depend on ethnicity.

Understanding Authority in Classrooms: A Review of Theory, Ideology, and Research

Abstract: Authority is a fundamental, problematic, and poorly understood component of classroom life. A better understanding of classroom authority can be achieved by reviewing writings on social theory, educational ideology, and qualitative research in schools. Social theories provide important analytical tools for examining the constitutive elements of authority but fall short of explaining its variability and contextual influences. Discussion of educational ideologies offers insights into the debates, historical contexts, and policy and reform agendas that shape the politics of authority while neglecting empirical realities. Qualitative studies present empirical data and analyses on the challenges intrinsic to classroom relations, but, exceptions aside, they often lack explicit attention to authority. More research focused on classroom authority as a social construction is needed to address critical educational concerns for contemporary practitioners, policy makers, and researchers.

Reflections on Institutional Theories of Organizations

Abstract: Contemporary institutional theorizing in the field of organizations dates back thirty-odd years. This particularly describes what are called new or neo-institutionalisms. These terms evoke contrasts with earlier theories of the embeddedness of organizations in social and cultural contexts, now retrospectively called the ‘old institutionalism’ (Hirsch & Lounsbury, 1997; Stinchcombe, 1997). They went through a period of inattention, so that when institutional thinking came back in force after the 1960s, it seemed quite new. Institutional theories, as they emerged in the 1970s, received much attention in the field, along with other lines of thought emphasizing the dependence of modern organizations on their environments. Perhaps surprisingly, they continue to receive attention, and seem to retain substantial measures of vigor. One secondary aim, here, is to explain why. I primarily review the status and prospects of the principal themes of institutional theory. I concentrate on sociological institutionalism, as capturing core ideas in their most dramatic form, rather than the limited arguments emphasized in economics or political science. And within sociological versions, I concentrate on phenomenological theories. These reflect my own interests, are continuing loci of research creativity, and contrast most sharply with other lines of social scientific theorizing about organizations. In practice, ‘organizations’ tends to be both a research field, and a realist ideology about modern society: phenomenological thinking steps back from that commitment, and is useful in analyzing, for example, why so much formal organization exists in the modern world (Drori, Meyer,& Hwang, 2006).

Toward a definition of narrative

Abstract: In the past fifteen years, as the “narrative turn in the humanities” gave way to the narrative turn everywhere (politics, science studies, law, medicine, and last, but not least, cognitive science), few words have enjoyed so much use and suffered so much abuse as narrative and its partial synonym, story . The French theorist Jean-Francois Lyotard invokes the “Grand Narratives” of a capitalized History; the psychologist Jerome Bruner speaks of narratives of identity; the philosopher Daniel Dennett describes mental activity on the neural level as the continuous emergence and decay of narrative drafts; the political strategist James Carville attributes the loss of John Kerry in the 2004 presidential election to the lack of a convincing narrative; and “narratives of race, class and gender” have become a mantra of cultural studies. Gerald Prince regards the contemporary use of the term narrative as a hedging device, a way to avoid strong positions: “One says 'narrative' instead of 'explanation' or 'argumentation' (because it is more tentative); one prefers 'narrative' to 'theory,' 'hypothesis,' or 'evidence' (because it is less scientistic); one speaks of a 'narrative' rather than 'ideology' (because it is less judgmental); one substitutes 'narrative' for 'message' (because it is more indeterminate).” Another narrative theorist, Peter Brooks, attributes the surging popularity of the word to a more positive cause: “While I think the term has been trivialized through overuse, I believe the overuse responds to a recognition that narrative is one of the principal ways we organize our experience of the world - a part of our cognitive tool kit that was long neglected by psychologists and philosophers.”

The ecologically noble savage debate

Abstract: Debate around the ecologically noble savage represents two markedly different research threads. The first addresses the issue of conservation among native peoples and narrowly focuses on case studies of resource use of ethnographic, archaeological, or historic sources. The second thread is broader and more humanistic and political in orientation and considers the concept of ecological nobility in terms of identity, ecological knowledge, ideology, and the deployment of ecological nobility as a political tool by native peoples and conservation groups.

The Language of Law School: Learning to "Think Like a Lawyer"

Abstract: Notes on Transcription I. INTRODUCTION 1. Entering the World of U.S. Law 2. Law, Language, and the U.S. Classroom 3. Study, Design, Methodology, and Profile II. SIMILARITY: LEGAL EPISTEMOLOGY 4. Learning to Read Like a Lawyer: Text, Context, and Linguistic Ideology 5. Epistemology and Teaching Styles: Different Form, Same Message 6. On Becoming a Legal Person: Law Talk in the Law School Classrooms III. DIFFERENCE: SOCIAL STRUCTURE IN LEGAL PEDAGOGY 7. Professonial Style in Context 8. Student Participation and Social Difference: Race, Gender, Status, and Context in Law School Classes IV. CONCLUSION: READING, TALKING, AND "THINKING" LIKE A LAWYER 9. Legal Language and American Law: Authority, Morality, and Linguistic Ideology Notes Index

To share or not to share: modeling knowledge sharing using exchange ideology as a moderator

Abstract: Purpose – The purpose of this paper is to propose important determinants of knowledge sharing, including co‐worker congruence, received task interdependence, organizational commitment and participative decision‐making. Exchange ideology is considered a moderator in this study.Design/methodology/approach – A two‐step procedure of structural equation modeling is applied for data analysis. The moderating effects are simultaneously examined using data from employees across different industries.Findings – This study suggests the influence of co‐worker congruence on knowledge sharing is stronger for individuals with low exchange ideology than for those with high exchange ideology, while the influence of received task interdependence on knowledge sharing is stronger for individuals with high exchange ideology than for those with low exchange ideology. The influence of participative decision‐making on knowledge sharing is stronger for individuals with high exchange ideology than for those with low exchange ideolo...