Showing papers on "Instructional design published in 1979"

Motivation and instructional design: A theoretical perspective

Abstract: We have not given adequate systematic attention to the problem of motivation in instructional theory and technology, to the understanding of motivation in individual learners, or to the development of a technology for influencing motivation (Cooley & Lohnes, 1976; Cronbach & Snow, 1976). We know, as a rule of thumb, that we should introduce novelty, uncertainty, or a sense of mystery at the beginning of a program to elicit attention and, it is hoped, enthusiasm, and we know that we should use reinforcement to help sustain desirable changes in behavior, but neither of these principles constitutes an adequate understanding of motivation. The purpose of this paper is to present a theoretical approach to understanding motivation in relation to other factors that influence learning and the design of instruction. In this context, several illustrative research studies are reviewed along with an introduction to a systematic process of influencing motivation. This presentation is not exhaustive, but serves as an introduction to the approach, and as a basis for subsequent elaborations of the issues and tech-

In search of a better way to organize instruction: The elaboration theory

Abstract: The elaboration theory of instruction is an alternative to the standard way of organizing instruction based on a hierarchical task analysis. The hierarchical organization results in an instructional sequence that begins with highly fragmented, small pieces of the subjectmatter content. Many educators have found its fragmentation to be demotivating. Many educational psychologists have found its parts-to-whole sequence to be inconsistent with much knowledge about how learning occurs most effectively-namely schema theory and its predecessor, subsumption theory. And many instructional designers have found that "learning hierarchies" represent a very incomplete basis upon which to make decisions about sequencing the instruction, primarily because learning hierarchies are only one aspect of the structure of subject-matter content. All this is not to deny that learning prerequisites exist nor to say that they are not important-they do exist and they

Designing instruction for attitudinal outcomes

Abstract: Attitudinal outcomes should be a concern to the developer of teaching materials. Techniques likely to produce a favorable reaction in students should be identified, refined, and evaluated routinely as a part of the design and delivery of instruction process. It was readily apparent after studying the guidelines and research summarized in this article that type of media was only one of a number of variables that were found to influence attitudes. Media were primarily carriers of information in these studies. There was no “best medium” found for producing attitudinal outcomes. However, there probably is a “best approach” for the development of instruction that will maximize the likelihood of desirable attitudes being fostered in learners in a given situation. By critically applying the general guidelines listed above, the instructional developer should be well on the way to promoting attitudinal positions in students that are likely to contribute to a healthy, positive learning environment.

Individual Differences: Implications for Instructional Theory, Research, and Innovation:

Abstract: Research on instruction may be on a scientifically dead-end street. Since the psychology of learning has emerged as a properly scientific endeavor and schooling as a public and universally available service, the problem of utilizing the former to inform and optimize the latter has been of great concern to many. On the surface, the problem seems to be easily solved. Psychology may be regarded as the parent, or "host," science, and education as the properly parasitic enterprise to apply psychological theory. Educators, however, seem never to have been content to be mere "appliers" of learning theory. The quest for a "full seat" in the academy of science, though never quiet, has intensified in recent years (e.g., Bruner, 1964; Atkinson, 1972; Glaser, 1976; Snow, 1977b; Kerlinger, 1977). In his own recent outline of the essential structure of a "science of design" for education, Glaser (1976) noted that, as early as 1899, Dewey (1900) proposed that research in education be constructive of a "linking science" between theories of learning and classroom practice. Kerlinger (1977) argued recently that the traditional distinction between basic and applied educational research be carefully maintained, and that to confound them inevitably results in less than optimal progress in the development of both general theory and better classroom practice. My concern is that research on instruction, a key area of educational research generally, is in danger of falling into precisely the pitfalls that Kerlinger describes when the separate goals of basic and applied research are not separately pursued. This development is most clearly seen in recent work by Cronbach and particularly Snow (e.g., Cronbach & Snow, 1977; Snow, 1977a, 1977b). The plan for the discussion is: (a) to review selected recent contributions to the general problem of constructing "theory" in education and, more particularly, in instruction; (b) to examine critically a recent proposal by Snow (1977b) as a paradigm case of much of current thought carried to its logical conclusion; and (c) to propose a direction for basic research in instruction and for applied research in curriculum development.

Mastery learning: A psychological trap?

Abstract: In spite of all its announced advantages, the implementation of mastery learning instruction often falls short of theoretical expectations. As discussed under the four major characteristics of mastery learning, these implementation weaknesses pose serious problems for unsuspecting students, teachers, and instructional designers alike.

Interaction between attention directing and cognitive style.

Abstract: Certain instructional techniques are more effective than others in teaching students who have a particular cognitive style. Analytic (field independent) and global (field dependent) styles of learning in 96 sixth graders were tested using two instructional design techniques. One slide/tape presentation was attentiondirecting; the other used supplementary sound. Both covered the same information. A factor analysis of variance of test scores was made using cognitive style and audio treatment as variables.

An Analysis of Research Needs in Instructional Development.

Abstract: The charge then is clear. Instructional developers should begin concerted efforts to answer the questions posed here (and others which have not yet been raised) if the practice of instructional development is to be advanced. We know a great deal about how to facilitate and evaluate learning, but we need to know more about how to initiate, support, and assist with the instructional change process in higher education if our knowledge in the former area is to be fruitfully brought to bear on the task of improving instruction in higher education.

Instructional Communication Theory and Research: An Overview of Instructional Strategies as Instructional Communication Systems

Abstract: This overview of instructional communication examines practice or application in educational environments. It is the third of a series of overviews in the three existing Yearbook volumes. The first...

Cognitive/information processing psychology and instruction: Reviewing recent theory and practice

Abstract: With increasing frequency, constructs developed within the field of cognitive/information processing psychology are being employed in the development of instructional theory. This article attempts to organize a broad range of developments in instructional psychology which have this common origin. Particular emphasis is placed on the applicability of constructs such as data structures and procedures. Recent developments in instructional psychology are discussed relative to cognitive task analysis, individual difference variables, and cognitive models of interactive instructional decision-making. Implications for future theory and practice are considered.

What makes a difference in learning from media.

Abstract: Media design and selection decisions are often made solely on the basis of how information is to be delivered to the learner. With reference to recent and current research, this paper stresses the need to base such decisions on the compatibility of media with the content to be presented and with the learners. Application of these factors in the design of mediated instruction and the selection of materials is also considered.

The Instructional Message: A Theoretical Perspective.

Abstract: This article presents a theoretical model for message design proved capable of improving the quality of instruction while increasing cost effectiveness Integrating classical rhetoric, information theory, contemporary media criticism, social psychology, and the psychology of human information processing, the model directs the designer to design a block of time that optimizes the information load and message complexity within the constraints of the receiver’s abilities and experience, the requirements of the source, and the capabilities and limitations of the medium

Computer-Managed Instruction: Development and Evaluation of Student Skill Modules to Reduce Training Time

Abstract: : The development and evaluation of the CMI Student Skills Project are described within the context of the Air Force Advanced Instructional System (AIS). The student skill modules developed were designed as short packages to be assigned near the beginning of any military technical training course, but which included strategies or procedures that would continue to effect student behavior throughout the course (e.g., behavioral self control techniques). Following a series of student interviews to determine the characteristic problems students encounter in a CMI system, an Orientation to CMI/Time Management Lesson and Study Skills Package were developed and implemented. The Study Skills Package included a self-rating Student Study Skills Questionnaire and four study skills training modules in the areas of reading comprehension, memorization, test taking, and concentration management skills.