Showing papers on "LPWAN published in 2022"

A Survey on LoRaWAN Technology: Recent Trends, Opportunities, Simulation Tools and Future Directions

Abstract: Low-power wide-area network (LPWAN) technologies play a pivotal role in IoT applications, owing to their capability to meet the key IoT requirements (e.g., long range, low cost, small data volumes, massive device number, and low energy consumption). Between all obtainable LPWAN technologies, long-range wide-area network (LoRaWAN) technology has attracted much interest from both industry and academia due to networking autonomous architecture and an open standard specification. This paper presents a comparative review of five selected driving LPWAN technologies, including NB-IoT, SigFox, Telensa, Ingenu (RPMA), and LoRa/LoRaWAN. The comparison shows that LoRa/LoRaWAN and SigFox surpass other technologies in terms of device lifetime, network capacity, adaptive data rate, and cost. In contrast, NB-IoT technology excels in latency and quality of service. Furthermore, we present a technical overview of LoRa/LoRaWAN technology by considering its main features, opportunities, and open issues. We also compare the most important simulation tools for investigating and analyzing LoRa/LoRaWAN network performance that has been developed recently. Then, we introduce a comparative evaluation of LoRa simulators to highlight their features. Furthermore, we classify the recent efforts to improve LoRa/LoRaWAN performance in terms of energy consumption, pure data extraction rate, network scalability, network coverage, quality of service, and security. Finally, although we focus more on LoRa/LoRaWAN issues and solutions, we introduce guidance and directions for future research on LPWAN technologies.

LoRa Networking Techniques for Large-scale and Long-term IoT: A Down-to-top Survey

Abstract: Low-Power Wide-Area Networks (LPWANs) are an emerging Internet-of-Things (IoT) paradigm, which caters to large-scale and long-term sensory data collection demand. Among the commercialized LPWAN technologies, LoRa (Long Range) attracts much interest from academia and industry due to its open-source physical (PHY) layer and standardized networking stack. In the flourishing LoRa community, many observations and countermeasures have been proposed to understand and improve the performance of LoRa networking in practice. From the perspective of the LoRa networking stack; however, we lack a whole picture to comprehensively understand what has been done or not and reveal what the future trends are. This survey proposes a taxonomy of a two-dimensional (i.e., networking layers, performance metrics) to categorize and compare the cutting-edge LoRa networking techniques. One dimension is the layered structure of the LoRa networking stack. From down to the top, we have the PHY layer, Link layer, Media-access Control (MAC) layer, and Application (App) layer. In each layer, we focus on the three most representative layer-specific research issues for fine-grained categorizing. The other dimension is LoRa networking performance metrics, including range, throughput, energy, and security. We compare different techniques in terms of these metrics and further overview the open issues and challenges, followed by our observed future trends. According to our proposed taxonomy, we aim at clarifying several ways to achieve a more effective LoRa networking stack and find more LoRa applicable scenarios, leading to a brand-new step toward a large-scale and long-term IoT.

Internet of Things for Sustainable Railway Transportation: Past, Present, and Future

Abstract: The Internet of Things (IoT) symbolizes numerous devices which are connected globally through the internet technology and are able to collect and share relevant data. The IoT has thus achieved a significant advancement in the field of sensors, networks, and communication technologies, such as long-term evolution (LTE) technology, fifth generation (5G) technology, wireless sensor networks (WSN), and others. Apart from technological advancements, the ability of IoT to run fully embedded (with or without an operating system), gather real-time data, estimate physical parameters, facilitate decision making based on the data gathered, use of various networks (e.g., local area networks (LAN), low-power wide-area network (LPWAN), cellular LPWAN) has provided enormous opportunities for its applications in the railway industry and other domains. The current study performs a comprehensive holistic survey of various IoT technologies that can be used in railway operations, management, maintenance, video surveillance, and safety at level crossings. This study also discusses current trends in the IoT, emerging IoT technologies, green IoT applications, and various research studies that have been conducted in the areas related to railway applications. Furthermore, various challenges that are associated with the IoT applications are discussed along with potential efforts that can be made to overcome these challenges. The outcomes of this work are expected to offer important insights regarding the applicability of IoT technologies for sustainable railway transportation, their future potential, operational benefits to relevant stakeholders and authorities, as well as critical future research needs that have to be addressed in the following years.

Recent Advances in LoRa: A Comprehensive Survey

Abstract: The vast demand for diverse applications raises new networking challenges, which have encouraged the development of a new paradigm of Internet of Things (IoT), e.g., LoRa. LoRa is a proprietary spread spectrum modulation technique that provides a solution for long-range and ultra-low power-consumption transmission. Due to promising prospects of LoRa, significant effort has been made on this compelling technology since its emergence. In this article, we provide a comprehensive survey of LoRa from a systematic perspective: LoRa analysis, communication, security, and its enabled applications. First, we summarize works focusing on analyzing the performance of LoRa networks. Then, we review studies enhancing the performance of LoRa networks in communication. Afterward, we analyze the security vulnerabilities and countermeasures. Finally, we survey the various LoRa-enabled applications. We also present comparisons of existing methods, together with insightful observations and inspiring future research directions.

A Survey on 5G and LPWAN-IoT for Improved Smart Cities and Remote Area Applications: From the Aspect of Architecture and Security

Abstract: Addressing the recent trend of the massive demand for resources and ubiquitous use for all citizens has led to the conceptualization of technologies such as the Internet of Things (IoT) and smart cities. Ubiquitous IoT connectivity can be achieved to serve both urban and underserved remote areas such as rural communities by deploying 5G mobile networks with Low Power Wide Area Network (LPWAN). The current architectures will not offer flexible connectivity to many IoT applications due to high service demand, data exchange, emerging technologies, and security challenges. Hence, this paper explores various architectures that consider a hybrid 5G-LPWAN-IoT and Smart Cities. This includes security challenges as well as endogenous security and solutions in 5G and LPWAN-IoT. The slicing of virtual networks using software-defined network (SDN)/network function virtualization (NFV) based on the different quality of service (QoS) to satisfy different services and quality of experience (QoE) is presented. Also, a strategy that considers the implementation of 5G jointly with Weightless-N (TVWS) technologies to reduce the cell edge interference is considered. Discussions on the need for ubiquity connectivity leveraging 5G and LPWAN-IoT are presented. In addition, future research directions are presented, including a unified 5G network and LPWAN-IoT architecture that will holistically support integration with emerging technologies and endogenous security for improved/secured smart cities and remote areas IoT applications. Finally, the use of LPWAN jointly with low earth orbit (LEO) satellites for ubiquitous IoT connectivity is advocated in this paper.

TinyML for Ultra-Low Power AI and Large Scale IoT Deployments: A Systematic Review

Abstract: The rapid emergence of low-power embedded devices and modern machine learning (ML) algorithms has created a new Internet of Things (IoT) era where lightweight ML frameworks such as TinyML have created new opportunities for ML algorithms running within edge devices. In particular, the TinyML framework in such devices aims to deliver reduced latency, efficient bandwidth consumption, improved data security, increased privacy, lower costs and overall network cost reduction in cloud environments. Its ability to enable IoT devices to work effectively without constant connectivity to cloud services, while nevertheless providing accurate ML services, offers a viable alternative for IoT applications seeking cost-effective solutions. TinyML intends to deliver on-premises analytics that bring significant value to IoT services, particularly in environments with limited connection. This review article defines TinyML, presents an overview of its benefits and uses and provides background information based on up-to-date literature. Then, we demonstrate the TensorFlow Lite framework which supports TinyML along with analytical steps for an ML model creation. In addition, we explore the integration of TinyML with network technologies such as 5G and LPWAN. Ultimately, we anticipate that this analysis will serve as an informational pillar for the IoT/Cloud research community and pave the way for future studies.

Optimizing Power Allocation in LoRaWAN IoT Applications

Abstract: Long-range wide-area network (LoRaWAN) is one of the most promising IoT technologies that are widely adopted in low-power wide-area networks (LPWANs). LoRaWAN faces scalability issues due to a large number of nodes connected to the same gateway and sharing the same channel. Therefore, LoRa networks seek to achieve two main objectives: 1) successful delivery rate and 2) efficient energy consumption. This article proposes a novel game-theoretic framework for LoRaWAN named best equal LoRa (BE-LoRa), to jointly optimize the packet delivery ratio and the energy efficiency (bit/Joule). The utility function of the LoRa node is defined as the ratio of the throughput to the transmit power. LoRa nodes act as rational users (players) which seek to maximize their utility. The aim of the BE-LoRa algorithm is to maximize the utility of LoRa nodes while maintaining the same signal-to-interference-and-noise-ratio (SINR) for each spreading factor (SF). The power allocation algorithm is implemented at the network server, which leads to an optimum SINR, SFs, and transmission power settings of all nodes. Numerical and simulation results show that the proposed BE-LoRa power allocation algorithm has a significant improvement in the packet delivery ratio and energy efficiency as compared to the adaptive data rate (ADR) algorithm of legacy LoRaWAN. For instance, in very dense networks (624 nodes), BE-LoRa can improve the delivery ratio by 17.44% and reduce power consumed by 46% compared to LoRaWAN ADR.

Efficient Coordination among Electrical Vehicles: An IoT-Assisted Approach

Abstract: Higher refueling time of the Electric-Vehicles (EVs) is one of the major concerns in their wide-spread use for transportation. A well-planned charge scheduling of the EVs, hence, is extremely important for proper utilization of the limited charging infrastructure and also limit the size of the waiting queue in the Charging Stations (CSs). Almost all the existing works on this topic are theoretical and assume the availability of global data of the EVs and the CSs. In this work, we take an endeavor to derive a practically useful solution to this problem through efficient EV-CS coordination. In particular, we perceive the EVs and the CSs to be connected with each other through a Low-Power Wide Area Network (LPWAN) and propose to achieve dynamic EV-CS coordination through the use of Concurrent-Transmission (CT) based mechanism. Through extensive simulation and testbed based studies we demonstrate how the goal can be fruitfully achieved in a quite scalable fashion despite the requirement of a very wide area coverage and active participation of an enormous number of EVs and CSs.

Low-Power Wide-Area Networks: A Broad Overview of Its Different Aspects

Abstract: Low-power wide-area networks (LPWANs) are gaining popularity in the research community due to their low power consumption, low cost, and wide geographical coverage. LPWAN technologies complement and outperform short-range and traditional cellular wireless technologies in a variety of applications, including smart city development, machine-to-machine (M2M) communications, healthcare, intelligent transportation, industrial applications, climate-smart agriculture, and asset tracking. This review paper discusses the design objectives and the methodologies used by LPWAN to provide extensive coverage for low-power devices. We also explore how the presented LPWAN architecture employs various topologies such as star and mesh. We examine many current and emerging LPWAN technologies, as well as their system architectures and standards, and evaluate their ability to meet each design objective. In addition, the possible coexistence of LPWAN with other technologies, combining the best attributes to provide an optimum solution is also explored and reported in the current overview. Following that, a comparison of various LPWAN technologies is performed and their market opportunities are also investigated. Furthermore, an analysis of various LPWAN use cases is performed, highlighting their benefits and drawbacks. This aids in the selection of the best LPWAN technology for various applications. Before concluding the work, the open research issues, and challenges in designing LPWAN are presented.

LoRaWAN security issues and mitigation options by the example of agricultural IoT scenarios

Abstract: The Internet of Things (IoT) is a major trend that is seen as a great opportunity to improve efficiency in many domains, including agriculture. This technology could transform the sector, improving the management and quality of agricultural operations, for example, crop farming. The most promising data transmission standard for this domain seems to be Long Range Wide Area Network (LoRaWAN), a popular representative of low power wide area network technologies today. LoRaWAN, like any wireless protocol, has properties that can be exploited by attackers, which has been a topic of multiple research papers in recent years. By conducting a systematic literature review, we build a recent list of attacks, as well as collect mitigation options. Taking a look at a concrete use case (IoT in agriculture) allows us to evaluate the practicality of both exploiting the vulnerabilities and implementing the countermeasures. We detected 16 attacks that we grouped into six attack types. Along with the attacks, we collect countermeasures for attack mitigation. Developers can use our findings to minimize the risks when developing applications based on LoRaWAN. These mostly theoretical security recommendations should encourage future works to evaluate the mitigations in practice.

Smart Mina: LoRaWAN Technology for Smart Fire Detection Application for Hajj Pilgrimage

Abstract: The Long-Range Wide Area Network (LoRaWAN) is one of the used communication systems that serve and enables the deployment of the Internet of Things (IoT), which occasionally transmit small size data. As part of the Low Power Wide Area Network (LPWAN), LoRaWAN is characterized by its ability for low power consumption. In addition, it is built to provide more extended coverage and higher capacity with minimum cost. In this paper, we investigate the feasibility and scalability of LoRaWAN for the Mina area using a realistic network model. Mina, known as the world’s largest tent city, is a valley located in the east of Makkah city and surrounded by mountains. It accommodates up to 3 million pilgrims annually and contains more than 100000 tents. The performance was evaluated based on a fire detection-like application. Extensive simulations were conducted using the OMNeT++ simulator and Flora model to determine the delivery ratio, collision, and SF distribution for the simulated scenario with a network consisting of up to ten thousand end devices. The conducted simulations show a promising result for LoRaWAN technology for Mina city. It showed a consistent performance for LoRaWAN in most simulated scenarios when a high success ratio was achieved.

Survey and Comparative Study of LoRa-Enabled Simulators for Internet of Things and Wireless Sensor Networks

Abstract: The Internet of Things (IoT) is one of the most important emerging technologies, spanning a myriad of possible applications, especially with the increasing number and variety of connected devices. Several network simulation tools have been developed with widely varying focuses and used in many research fields. Thus, it is critical to simulate the work of such systems and applications before actual deployment. This paper explores the landscape of available IoT and wireless sensor networks (WSNs) simulators and compares their performance using the Low Power Wide Area Network (LPWAN) communication technology called LoRa (Long Range), which has recently gained a lot of interest. Using a systematic approach, we present a chronological survey of available IoT and WSNs simulation tools. With this, we categorized and content-analyzed published scientific papers in the IoT and WSNs simulation tools research domain by highlighting the simulation tools, study type, scope of study and performance measures of the studies. Next, we present an overview of LoRa/LoRaWAN technology by considering its architecture, transmission parameters, device classes and available simulation tools. Furthermore, we discussed three popular open-source simulation tools/frameworks, namely, NS-3, OMNeT++ (FLoRa) and LoRaSim, for the simulation of LoRa/LoRaWAN networks. Finally, we evaluate their performance in terms of Packet Delivery Ratio (PDR), CPU utilization, memory usage, execution time and the number of collisions.

ICARUS—Very Low Power Satellite-Based IoT

Abstract: The ICARUS (International Cooperation for Animal Research Using Space) satellite IoT system was launched in 2020 to observe the life of animals on Earth: their migratory routes, living conditions, and causes of death. These findings will aid species conservation, protect ecosystem services by animals, measure weather and climate, and help forecast the spread of infectious zoonotic diseases and possibly natural disasters. The aim of this article is to explain the system design of ICARUS. Essential components are ‘wearables for wildlife’, miniature on-animal sensors, quantifying the health of animals and the surrounding environment on the move, and transmitting artificially intelligent summaries of these data globally. We introduce a new class of Internet-of-things (IoT) waveforms—the random-access, very-low-power, wide-area networks (RA-vLPWANs) which enable uncoordinated multiple access at very-low-signal power and low-signal-to-noise ratios. RA-vLPWANs used in ICARUS solve the problems hampering conventional low-power wide area network (LPWAN) IoT systems when applied to space communications. Prominent LPWANs are LoRA, SigFox, MIOTY, ESSA, NB-IoT (5G), or SCADA. Hardware and antenna aspects in the ground and the space segment are given to explain practical system constraints.

Combining LoRaWAN and NB-IoT for Edge-to-Cloud Low Power Connectivity Leveraging on Fog Computing

Abstract: Low Power Wide Area Networks (LPWANs) play crucial roles in the implementation of low-power and low-cost wide area distributed systems. Currently, two enabling technologies are the main competitors within the connectivity field for the Internet of Things (IoT), primarily because of their scalability, wide range and low power features: Long Range Wide Area Network (LoRaWAN) and Narrowband IoT (NB-IoT). In this paper, a brand new network architecture is presented, which combines both aforementioned technologies. Such a network accounts for sensor nodes, multi-protocol gateways, an a cloud infrastructure. Sensor nodes may be alternatively provided with LoRaWAN or NB-IoT. Multi-protocol gateways can receive and demodulate LoRaWAN packets and upload them to the cloud via the Message Queue Telemetry Transport (MQTT) protocol over NB-IoT. The cloud is transparent with respect to the transmission technology, meaning that data are acquired and stored regardless of the exploited technique (i.e., LoRaWAN or NB-IoT). Indeed, sensor nodes using NB-IoT can send data to the cloud and can directly communicate with other NB-IoT nodes setting up a fog computing paradigm on peer-to-peer subnetworks. This approach may be crucial for the development of complex IoT infrastructures while providing high flexibility.

A Survey on LPWAN-5G Integration: Main Challenges and Potential Solutions

Abstract: The popularity of Internet of Things (IoT) has resulted in increased deployments of Low Power Wide Area (LPWA) technologies for both commercial and private services due to their performance and cost advantages. Although Low Power Wide Area Networks (LPWANs) have the advantages of low power consumption, wide coverage, low-cost and scalability, they generally have lower data rates and lower reliability, thus limiting their suitability for a wider range of industrial use cases such as process control and high data rate multimedia applications. To overcome this, LPWA technologies can be integrated into 5G, a flexible, scalable, agile and programmable mobile communication system. In this paper, we provide a survey on LPWAN-5G integration focusing on the main integration challenges and potential solutions. We firstly compare popular licensed and unlicensed LPWA technologies, and then introduce the 5G architecture and enabling technologies for LPWAN-5G integration. Finally, we discuss in detail the challenges and potential solutions of LPWAN-5G integration, covering all the important aspects including hybrid architecture, security, mobility, interoperability between LPWANs, and coexistence with other wireless technologies. From our analysis, it can be seen that LPWAN-5G integration tends to evolve from access network to core network.

Analysis of LoRaWAN 1.0 and 1.1 Protocols Security Mechanisms

Abstract: LoRaWAN is a low power wide area network (LPWAN) technology protocol introduced by the LoRa Alliance in 2015. It was designed for its namesake features: long range, low power, low data rate, and wide area networks. Over the years, several proposals on protocol specifications have addressed various challenges in LoRaWAN, focusing on its architecture and security issues. All of these specifications must coexist, giving rise to the compatibility issues impacting the sustainability of this technology. This paper studies the compatibility issues in LoRaWAN protocols. First, we detail the different protocol specifications already disclosed by the LoRa Alliance in two major versions, v1.0 and v1.1. This is done through presenting two scenarios where we discuss the communication and security mechanisms. In the first scenario, we describe how an end node (ED) and network server (NS) implementing LoRaWAN v1.0 generate session security keys and exchange messages for v1.0. In the second scenario, we describe how an ED v1.1 and an NS v1.1 communicate after generating security session keys. Next, we highlight the compatibility issues between the components implementing the two different LoRaWAN Specifications (mainly v1.0 and v1.1). Next, we present two new scenarios (scenarios 3 and 4) interchanging the ED and NS versions. In scenario three, we detail how an ED implementing LoRaWAN v1.1 communicates with an NS v1.0. Conversely, in scenario four, we explain how an ED v1.0 and an NS v1.1 communicate. In all these four scenarios, we highlight the concerns with security mechanism: show security session keys are generated and how integrity and confidentiality are guaranteed in LoRaWAN. At the end, we present a comparative table of these four compatibility scenarios.

LoRaWAN based Internet of Things (IoT) System for Precision Irrigation in Plasticulture Fresh-market Tomato

Abstract: Precision irrigation with sensors has proven to be effective for water saving in crop production. An Internet of Things (IoT) system is necessary for monitoring real-time data from sensors and automating irrigation systems. Long-range wide-area network (LoRaWAN), a type of low-power wide-area network (LPWAN), is a low-cost and easily implemented IoT system which can be used for precision crop irrigation. In this study, a LoRaWAN based IoT system was developed and evaluated as a precision irrigation tool on fresh-market tomato production in a plasticulture system. Four irrigation scheduling treatments were designed and tested, including irrigation based on crop evapotranspiration (ET), soil matric potential sensors (Watermark 200SS-5) at -60 kPa (MP60) or -40 kPa (MP40), and GesCoN fertigation decision support system (DSS). The treatments were arranged based on a randomized complete block design with four replicates. System feasibility, irrigation water use efficiency (iWUE), and crop yield were evaluated. Throughout the season, the overall water use efficiencies were 22.2, 26.5, 27.9, and 28.4 kg·m−3 for ET, MP60, MP40, and GesCoN, respectively. The results indicated that treatment MP60 and GesCoN had 15.2 and 22.1% higher marketable fruit yield than ET, while, MP40 had 12.5% lower marketable yield compared to ET. Overall, the LoRaWAN-based IoT system performed well in terms of power consumption, communication, sensor reading, and valve control. These results suggested that the IoT system can be implemented for precision and automatic irrigation operations for vegetable and other horticultural crops with enhancing crop's water use efficiency and sustainability.

Exploration of IoT Nodes Communication Using LoRaWAN in Forest Environment

Abstract: The simultaneous advances in the Internet of Things (IoT), Artificial intelligence (AI) and Robotics is going to revolutionize our world in the near future. In recent years, LoRa (Long Range) wireless powered by LoRaWAN (LoRa Wide Area Network) protocol has attracted the attention of researchers for numerous applications in the IoT domain. LoRa is a low power, unlicensed Industrial, Scientific, and Medical (ISM) band-equipped wireless technology that utilizes a wide area network protocol, i.e., LoRaWAN, to incorporate itself into the network infrastructure. In this paper, we have evaluated the LoRaWAN communication protocol for the implementation of the IoT (Internet of Things) nodes’ communication in a forest scenario. The outdoor performance of LoRa wireless in LoRaWAN, i.e., the physical layer, has been evaluated in the forest area of Kashirampur Uttarakhand, India. Hence, the present paper aims towards analyzing the performance level of the LoRaWAN technology by observing the changes in Signal to Noise Ratio (SNR), Packet Reception Ratio (PRR) and Received Signal Strength Indicator (RSSI), with respect to the distance between IoT nodes. The article focuses on estimating network lifetime for a specific set of LoRa configuration parameters, hardware selection and power constraints. From the experimental results, it has been observed that transmissions can propagate to a distance of 300 m in the forest environment, while consuming approx. 63% less energy for spreading factor 7 at 2 dBm, without incurring significant packet loss with PRR greater than 80%.

A Smart Parking Solution by Integrating NB-IoT Radio Communication Technology into the Core IoT Platform

Abstract: With the emerging Internet of Things (IoT) technologies, the smart city paradigm has become a reality. Wireless low-power communication technologies (LPWAN) are widely used for device connection in smart homes, smart lighting, mitering, and so on. This work suggests a new approach to a smart parking solution using the benefits of narrowband Internet of Things (NB-IoT) technology. NB-IoT is an LPWAN technology dedicated to sensor communication within 5G mobile networks. This paper proposes the integration of NB-IoT into the core IoT platform, enabling direct sensor data navigation to the IoT radio stations for processing, after which they are forwarded to the user application programming interface (API). Showcasing the results of our research and experiments, this work suggests the ability of NB-IoT technology to support geolocation and navigation services, as well as payment and reservation services for vehicle parking to make the smart parking solutions smarter.

Data-Driven Self-Learning Controller for Power-Aware Mobile Monitoring IoT Devices

Abstract: Nowadays, there is a significant need for maintenance free modern Internet of things (IoT) devices which can monitor an environment. IoT devices such as these are mobile embedded devices which provide data to the internet via Low Power Wide Area Network (LPWAN). LPWAN is a promising communications technology which allows machine to machine (M2M) communication and is suitable for small mobile embedded devices. The paper presents a novel data-driven self-learning (DDSL) controller algorithm which is dedicated to controlling small mobile maintenance-free embedded IoT devices. The DDSL algorithm is based on a modified Q-learning algorithm which allows energy efficient data-driven behavior of mobile embedded IoT devices. The aim of the DDSL algorithm is to dynamically set operation duty cycles according to the estimation of future collected data values, leading to effective operation of power-aware systems. The presented novel solution was tested on a historical data set and compared with a fixed duty cycle reference algorithm. The root mean square error (RMSE) and measurements parameters considered for the DDSL algorithm were compared to a reference algorithm and two independent criteria (the performance score parameter and normalized geometric distance) were used for overall evaluation and comparison. The experiments showed that the novel DDSL method reaches significantly lower RMSE while the number of transmitted data count is less than or equal to the fixed duty cycle algorithm. The overall criteria performance score is 40% higher than the reference algorithm base on static confirmation settings.

Insights into the Issue of Deploying a Private LoRaWAN

Abstract: The last decade has transformed wireless access technologies and crystallized a new direction for the internet of things (IoT). The modern low-power wide-area network (LPWAN) technologies have been introduced to deliver connectivity for billions of devices while keeping the costs and consumption low, and the range of communication high. While the 5G (fifth generation mobile network) LPWAN-like radio technologies, namely NB-IoT (narrowband internet of things) and LTE-M (long-term evolution machine type communication) are emerging, the long-range wide-area network (LoRaWAN) remains extremely popular. One unique feature of this technology, which distinguishes it from the competitors, is the possibility of supporting both public and private network deployments. In this paper we focus on this aspect and deliver original results comparing the performance of the private and public LoRAWAN deployment options; these results should help understand the LoRaWAN technology and give a clear overview of the advantages and disadvantages of the private versus public approaches. Notably, we carry the comparison along the three dimensions: the communication performance, the security, and the cost analysis. The presented results illustratively demonstrate the differences of the two deployment approaches, and thus can support selection of the most efficient deployment option for a target application.

An IoT Measurement System Based on LoRaWAN for Additive Manufacturing

Abstract: The Industrial Internet of Things (IIoT) paradigm represents a significant leap forward for sensor networks, potentially enabling wide-area and innovative measurement systems. In this scenario, smart sensors might be equipped with novel low-power and long range communication technologies to realize a so-called low-power wide-area network (LPWAN). One of the most popular representative cases is the LoRaWAN (Long Range WAN) network, where nodes are based on the widespread LoRa physical layer, generally optimized to minimize energy consumption, while guaranteeing long-range coverage and low-cost deployment. Additive manufacturing is a further pillar of the IIoT paradigm, and advanced measurement capabilities may be required to monitor significant parameters during the production of artifacts, as well as to evaluate environmental indicators in the deployment site. To this end, this study addresses some specific LoRa-based smart sensors embedded within artifacts during the early stage of the production phase, as well as their behavior once they have been deployed in the final location. An experimental evaluation was carried out considering two different LoRa end-nodes, namely, the Microchip RN2483 LoRa Mote and the Tinovi PM-IO-5-SM LoRaWAN IO Module. The final goal of this research was to assess the effectiveness of the LoRa-based sensor network design, both in terms of suitability for the aforementioned application and, specifically, in terms of energy consumption and long-range operation capabilities. Energy optimization, battery life prediction, and connectivity range evaluation are key aspects in this application context, since, once the sensors are embedded into artifacts, they will no longer be accessible.

A Fault Tolerant Surveillance System for Fire Detection and Prevention Using LoRaWAN in Smart Buildings

Abstract: In recent years, fire detection technologies have helped safeguard lives and property from hazards. Early fire warning methods, such as smoke or gas sensors, are ineffectual. Many fires have caused deaths and property damage. IoT is a fast-growing technology. It contains equipment, buildings, electrical systems, vehicles, and everyday things with computing and sensing capabilities. These objects can be managed and monitored remotely as they are connected to the Internet. In the Internet of Things concept, low-power devices like sensors and controllers are linked together using the concept of Low Power Wide Area Network (LPWAN). Long Range Wide Area Network (LoRaWAN) is an LPWAN product used on the Internet of Things (IoT). It is well suited for networks of things connected to the Internet, where terminals send a minute amount of sensor data over large distances, providing the end terminals with battery lifetimes of years. In this article, we design and implement a LoRaWAN-based system for smart building fire detection and prevention, not reliant upon Wireless Fidelity (Wi-Fi) connection. A LoRa node with a combination of sensors can detect smoke, gas, Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG), propane, methane, hydrogen, alcohol, temperature, and humidity. We developed the system in a real-world environment utilizing Wi-Fi Lora 32 boards. The performance is evaluated considering the response time and overall network delay. The tests are carried out in different lengths (0–600 m) and heights above the ground (0–2 m) in an open environment and indoor (1st Floor–3rd floor) environment. We observed that the proposed system outperformed in sensing and data transfer from sensing nodes to the controller boards.

SCHC over LoRaWAN Efficiency: Evaluation and Experimental Performance of Packet Fragmentation

Abstract: Low Power Wide Area Networks (LPWAN) are expected to enable the massive connectivity of small and constrained devices to the Internet of Things. Due to the restricted nature of both end devices and network links, LPWAN technologies employ network stacks where there is no interoperable network layer as a general case; instead, application data are usually placed directly into technology-specific two-layer frames. Besides not being able to run standard IP-based protocols at the end device, the lack of an IP layer also causes LPWAN segments to operate in an isolated manner, requiring middleboxes to interface non-IP LPWAN technologies with the IP world. The IETF has standardized a compression and fragmentation scheme, called Static Context Header Compression and Fragmentation (SCHC), which can compress and fragment IPv6 and UDP headers for LPWAN in a way that enables IP-based communications on the constrained end device. This article presents a model to determine the channel occupation efficiency based on the transmission times of SCHC messages in the upstream channel of a LoRaWAN™ link using the ACK-on-Error mode of standard SCHC. The model is compared against experimental data obtained from the transmission of packets that are fragmented using a SCHC over LoRaWAN implementation. This modeling provides a relationship between the channel occupancy efficiency, the spreading factor of LoRa™, and the probability of an error of a SCHC message. The results show that the model correctly predicts the efficiency in channel occupation for all spreading factors. Furthermore, the SCHC ACK-on-Error mode implementation for the upstream channel has been made fully available for further use by the research community.

Packet Fragmentation Over Sigfox: Implementation and Performance Evaluation of SCHC ACK-on-Error

Abstract: The static context header compression and fragmentation (SCHC) framework has been recently designed by the Internet engineering task force (IETF). SCHC provides adaptation layer functionality intended to efficiently support IPv6-based and other applications over low power wide area network (LPWAN) technologies. As of the writing, technology-specific profiles are being standardized in order to describe how SCHC can be tailored when used over a given underlying technology. In this article, we provide the first performance evaluation of SCHC over Sigfox, a flagship LPWAN technology. We focus on the main SCHC over Sigfox fragmentation mode, called ACK-on-Error, which offers low overhead, reliability, and reassembly functionalities. We provide a theoretical analysis and an experimental evaluation in real environments that correspond to two geographical zones with different Sigfox radio settings: 1) Barcelona (Spain) and 2) Santiago (Chile). The study focuses on modeling and evaluating packet transfer times, and the required number of uplink and downlink messages. The results show that a small change in packet sizes may significantly affect the transfer times, especially when no duty-cycle restrictions are enforced. Also, we observe that, under certain conditions, an increase in the fragment loss rate (FLR) may decrease the packet transfer time, and that the number of uplink and downlink messages is not proportional to such increase due to the fact that downlink messages are device-driven. The results provide useful insights for researchers, developers, implementers, and providers, with applicability to the application design, network planning, and resource management of Internet of Things (IoT) solutions.