Showing papers on "Situation awareness published in 1991"

Situation Awareness: A Critical But Ill-Defined Phenomenon

Abstract: Situation awareness has recently gained considerable attention as a performance-related psychological concept. This is especially true in the aviation domain where it is considered an essential prerequisite for the safe operation of the complex dynamic system 'aircraft.' There are concerns, however, that inappropriately designed automatic systems introduced to advanced flight decks may reduce situation awareness and thereby put aviation safety at risk. Situation awareness has thus become a ubiquitous phrase. It's use is most often based on an intuitive understanding; a commonly accepted definition is still missing. To fill this gap, we analyze the cognitive basis of the concept, embedding it in the context of related psychological concepts. On this basis, methodological approaches to the investigation of situation awareness are discussed.

Workload or Situational Awareness?: TLX vs. SART for Aerospace Systems Design Evaluation

Abstract: Both workload and situational awareness (SA) have been recognised as important considerations in aerospace system design evaluation. This paper considers the use of subjective techniques for the me...

Automation and systems issues in air traffic control

Abstract: The Impact of Automation on Air Traffic Control Systems.- Assumptions and Automation in Air Traffic Systems.- Perspectives on Air Traffic Control Automation.- Computerization and Automation: Upgrading the American Air Traffic Control System.- The Canadian Automated Air Traffic System (CAATS): An Overview.- The Implementation and Impact of Automatic Data Processing on UK Military ATC Operations.- From Under the Headset: The Role of the Air Traffic Controllers' Professional Association in Present and Future Air Traffic Control Systems Development.- A Collation of Approaches to Systems.- Air Traffic Control and Systems Issues.- ICAO and Future Air Navigation Systems.- Social, Political, and Regulatory Issues Concerning Harmonization of Interacting Air Traffic Control Systems in Western Europe.- Aircraft Traffic Forecast and Communications Requirements in the Year 2000.- Automation in Environmental Engineering.- The Role of Automation and Control Systems in Water Resources Engineering.- Automated Aids and Their Evaluation.- Intelligent Dialogue in Air Traffic Control Systems.- Close Ground/Air Cooperation in Dynamic Air Traffic Management.- Multi-layer Queuing Model to Check Automated Air Traffic Control Systems.- Application of Planning Aids for Air Traffic Control: Design Principles, Solutions, Results.- Artificial Intelligence and Human Factors in ATC: Current Activity at Eurocontrol Experimental Centre.- Meeting the ATC Challenge through Simulation.- Human Attributes, Representatives, and Requirements in Relation to Automation.- The Aims of Human Factors and Their Application to Issues in Automation and Air Traffic Control.- Human Factors in System Design.- Automated Systems: The Human Factor.- Modelling Control Tasks in Complex Systems.- Mental Models in Air Traffic Control.- The Controller in Human Engineering.- Acceptance of New Systems by Air Traffic Controllers.- Effects of the System on the Human: Stress and Workload.- Stress and Workload Management in Air Traffic Control.- Shiftwork and Circadian Variations of Vigilance and Performance.- Operator Workload as a Limiting Factor in Complex Systems.- Attention, Workload, and Automation.- Approaches to Error and Failure.- ICAO and Civil/Military Coordination.- Error Models for Operating Irregularities: Implications for Automation.- Cognitive Failures in Military Air Traffic Control.- Human Factors in ATC Communication.- Results of a Perceptual Study on Human Error in Computer Systems Based on Bailey's Research.- Organizational and Cultural Aspects of Air Traffic Control Automation.- Automation, Information, and Consciousness in Air Traffic Control.- Issues in Cultural Ergonomics.- Air Traffic Controller Working Conditions and Organization: Suggestions for Analysis and Improvements from a Psychological Point of View.- Automation as an Influence on Controller Selection.- Selecting for Air Traffic Control: The State of the Art.- Selection of Air Traffic Controllers for Automated Systems: Applications from Today's Research.- Automation Issues for the Selection of Controllers.- Automation in ATC: How Does It Affect the Selection of Controllers?.- Consequences of Automation for Training and Resource Management.- Training Requirements for Automated ATC.- Adaptive Training to Accommodate Automation in the Air Traffic Control System.- Resource Management Training for Air Traffic Controllers.- Non-Technical Training for Technocrats: Resource Management at Canadian Airlines.- Critical Issues for Decision Makers in Providing Operator and Maintainer Training for Advanced Air Traffic Control Systems.- Speculations on Automation and Air Traffic Control.- A Modest Proposal for Future Systems.- The Blue Sky Challenge: A Personal View.- Automation and Systems Issues in Air Traffic Control: Blue Sky Concepts.- What If... We Integrated Both Training and Monitoring Functions into Air Traffic Control Workstations?.- Some Final Thoughts.- Closing Remarks.- Anyone at Home?.- Participants.- Photographs of Air Traffic Control Facilities.- Index and Glossary.

Expanded field of view (EFOV) display for real-time, manned, interactive air combat simulation, including close-in combat

Abstract: An expanded field of view visual display concept capable of conducting credible close-in or within visual range (WVR) air-to-air combat from a single computer graphics display screen. By use of the invention, the visual scene content that normally exists outside and around the cockpit of a fighter aircraft can be condensed onto a single CRT screen or video projection screen in such a manner that pilots have good situational awareness, even in close-in-combat, and can fly credible air combat. An expanded field of view visual display is created, referred to as target coordinate display (TCD), capable of conducting credible close-in simulated air combat from a single CRT display or video projection screen. The display handles multiple aircraft, shows friendly aircraft formations, is usable in real time, shows weapon release information, is easily adapted to by pilots, and yields credible air combat simulation results.

Strategic Workload and the Cognitive Management of Advanced Multi-Task Systems

Abstract: : Improved technology and automation are being advocated as the solution to problems of lagging productivity and human error However, the very technology that is sought to improve productivity and reduce human crewmember's workload often has the opposite effect An alternative is human-centered automation that aids and supports the human crewmember To design it requires an expanded view of workload as a strategic task management problem, contrasted with the more traditional view of workload as competition for a limited pool of processing resources at any one time We introduce a theoretical framework for understanding human cognitive processing that builds on active theories of perception, connectionist theories of associative knowledge structures, and schema theories of comprehension The framework addresses mechanisms of attention, situation awareness, and real-time management of multiple streams of activity

Situational awareness is more than exceptional vision.

Abstract: Superior situational awareness, an extraordinary awareness of the total flight environment and aerial combat situation, is a significant contributor to success in aerial engagement. Review of over 1,000 published sources has led to the formulation of situational awareness as being principally in the cognitive domain. Superior awareness involves exceptional sensitivity to performance-critical cues in the operational environment, an exceptional capacity to anticipate changes in system states and operational conditions, and the ability to act on those changes in a proactive mode. Three important constructs are described: 1) automatic information processing; 2) near-threshold processing; and 3) skilled memory. In combination, they constitute a pilot attribute which uniquely facilitates the full armamentarium of skills and abilities of the superior tactical pilot.

Advanced human-system interfaces for telerobotics using virtual reality and telepresence technologies

Abstract: Historically, human-system interfaces have not, in general, received the human factors attention they deserve. One approach to overcoming the problems of poor human-system interface designs is to exploit the human's natural information processing and motor control skills in order to enhance situational awareness and minimise mental and physical workload. This paper describes the early stages and results of a UK Project which addresses the design of 'natural' or 'intuitive' interfaces by combining telepresence and virtual reality technologies. >

A real-time approach to information management in a pilot's associate

Abstract: A primary goal of the Pilot's Associate (PA) program is to enhance combat fighter pilot effectiveness by increasing a pilot's situational awareness and decreasing the workload. The Information Manager (IM) supports the pilot by intelligently presenting timely information in an easily interpreted form. The authors describe the requirements which a successful IM must fulfil. Among these are processing pilot display requests, reducing workload by configuring controls and displays automatically, alerting the pilot of pertinent events, and decluttering displays based on the pilot's current workload. In addition to these requirements, six constraints have been placed on the output of IM. IM's output must be timely and relevant, flexible and responsive, and predictable and intuitive. The constraints were addressed by the IM design. Search Technology's approach to providing information management in a real-time avionics environment is outlined. This approach has two main parts: the design and real-time considerations of the design. >

Individual Pilot Differences Related to Situation Awareness

Abstract: A pilot's ability to maintain a high level of situation awareness (SA) has been widely recognized as an important component of mission success and survivability in the air combat arena. The need for SA enhancement has led to the creation of a test battery designed to measure pilot attributes that are thought to correlate to SA. By correlating SA performance measures with results from the selected attribute tests, it will be possible to develop highly focused instructional methods that will improve performance in the attributes, thus enhancing SA.

An artificial neural network model of certain aspects of fighter pilot cognition

Abstract: The purpose of the research described was to model the representation of the major cognitive states and decision making processes of a fighter pilot during the intercept phase of a two-versus-two air combat engagement against a single group of adversary aircraft. A highlight of the research was the integration of an artificial neural network (ANN) model into a hybrid structure containing conventional symbolic logic and algorithmic elements. A conceptual framework was developed within which to define the situational awareness (SA) construct. The key design goal for the ANN was to achieve a depth of learning that transcends associative mapping and internalizes the multivariate, nonlinear relationships characteristic of an air combat engagement. An air combat simulation was created to illustrate the model's performance. >

Prototype Methods for Training and Assessing Future Tactical Command and Control Skills

Abstract: : This report presents prototype methods for training and assessing selected command and control (C2) skills for future tactical commanders. The methods are designed to support training requirements for vehicle-based automated C2 systems and to overcome some of the current limitations in the training and assessment of tactical C2 skills. The C2 vignette method is designed to rapidly generate standardized, operationally based, C2 training and assessment exercises with a minimum of personnel resources. The situational awareness (SA) measures are designed for objective assessment of a tactical commander's ability to 'see the battlefield' and to support quantifying objectives for SA training programs. These prototype methods are provided as tools that can be adapted by training developers and analysts of future C2 systems at simulation-based training and assessment facilities,

Objective evaluation of situation awareness for dynamic decision makers in teleoperations

Abstract: Situation awareness, a current mental mode of the environment, is critical to the ability of operators to perform complex and dynamic tasks. This should be particularly true for teleoperators, who are separated from the situation they need to be aware of. The design of the man-machine interface must be guided by the goal of maintaining and enhancing situation awareness. The objective of this work has been to build a foundation upon which research in the area can proceed. A model of dynamic human decision making which is inclusive of situation awareness will be presented, along with a definition of situation awareness. A method for measuring situation awareness will also be presented as a tool for evaluating design concepts. The Situation Awareness Global Assessment Technique (SAGAT) is an objective measure of situation awareness originally developed for the fighter cockpit environment. The results of SAGAT validation efforts will be presented. Implications of this research for teleoperators and other operators of dynamic systems will be discussed.

Resource Management Training for Air Traffic Controllers

Abstract: The concerns about controller effectiveness in today’s highly automated environment suggest that new training approaches may be warranted. Just as airline pilots have had to develop new skills for dealing with cockpit automation, so now must controllers also expand their repertoire to include the skills which comprise effective resource management. Resource management training refers generally to technical training in the efficient use of system resources in the performance of a job. While air traffic controllers are not as explicitly teamoriented as flight crews, there are job parallels which suggest that performance could be improved through resource management training for skills such as leadership, planning, communication, assertiveness, situational awareness, and decision making that are often a part of flight crew resource management training. Today’s high-density and complex operations require efficient coordination among air traffic facilities and effective use of system automation. Satisfactory system performance of our newly automated air traffic systems will depend on controllers’ resource management skills.

An intelligent pilot vehicle interface for a day/night adverse weather pilotage system (D/NAPS)

Abstract: The Aviation Applied Technology Directorate (AATD) of the U.S. Army Aviation Systems Command (AVSCOM) Fort Eustis, Virginia has awarded competitive contracts for the development of pilot cognitive decision aiding. The Daymight Adverse Weather Pilotage System (D/NAPS) program will use artificial intelligence (AI) and integrate with advanced pilotage sensors, controls, and displays in order to demonstrate the pilot cognitive decision aids. D/NAPS will incorporate lessons learned from the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA) and U.S. Air Force (USAF) Pilot’s Associate (PA) program for fixed-wing aircraft. The primary purpose of D/NAPS is to use artificial intelligence technology to maximize combat helicopter mission effectiveness and survivability for day/night adverse weather operations. The Pilot-Vehicle Interface @VI) is the key component of any system that offers pilot cognitive decision aiding, since the PVI is the intelligent interface that determines how and when to aid the pilot. This paper will present an overview of the Pilot’s Associate and D/NAPS programs, and will elucidate the requirements of an intelligent Pilot-Vehicle Interface. The D/NAPS program is a technology demonstration program sponsored by the Aviation Applied Technology Directorate of the U.S. Army Aviation Systems Command. N o competitive contracts have been awarded for the development of pilot cognitive decision aiding by applying artificial intelligence technology to encode expert knowledge and to integrate it with advanced pilotage sensors, controls, and displays. Experiences from the DARPA/USAF Pilot’s Associate program that applied artificial intelligence to aid the pilots of fixed-wing fighter aircraft will be used by D/NAPS Copyright@l991 by the American Institute of Aeronautics and Astrona~ti~~, Inc. All rights reserved. 159 Patricia A. Casper Stratford, Connecticut United Technologies Sikorsky Aircraft Division where appropriate. A downselect to one contractor to conduct ground-based integration and actual flight demonstration of the pilotage system will occur in August 1992. One of the D/NAPS prime contractors is Sikorsky Aircraft, whose major subcontractors include Texas Instruments and United Technologies Research Center (UTRC). The other award was presented to McDonnell Douglas Helicopter with IBM as principal subcontractor. Sikorsky Aircraft and UTRC have the responsibility of designing and implementing the Pilot-Vehicle Interface module, a key component of D/NAPS. The remainder of this section contains an overview of the D/NAPS program, the PA program, and the purpose of an intelligent Pilot-Vehicle Interface. The next section contains a discussion of the PVI in the PA program and a review of the different aircraft and mission requirements for the D/NAPS program. This section also contains a high-level overview of the Sikorsky Team’s approach to the D/NAPS PVI. DARPA and the Air Force began the pilot’s Associate program in 1986 as a means of exploiting artificial intelligence technology to improve the mission effectiveness and survivability of advanced tactical aircraft and as an application demonstration for real-time, cooperating knowledge-based systems. Two independent development contracts were awarded at that time to Lockheed Aeronautical Systems Company and McDonnell Aircraft Company. Currently, only the Lockheed team is funded towards developing a full functionality real-time demonstration for 1992. The purpose of the PA program is to build a trusted “associate” or assistant for the pilot, not to build a system capable of autonomous operation (without the pilot-bthe-loop). Further references to the Pilot’s Associate program may be found in References 1,2, and 5. The system should improve the combat effectiveness and survivability of the pilot when confronted with difficult situations such as unanticipated threat conditions or on-board system failures, or when he or she is overloaded with data and tasks. The PA should be capable of enhancing the pilot’s situational awareness, interpreting the pilot’s intent, and responding to pilot directives. The Pilot’s Associate is composed of five functional subsystems. Two of these systems are involved in assessment tasks, the Systems Status module and the Situation Assessment module. W o systems are involved in planning, the Mission Planner and the Tactical Planner. The fifth subsystem is an intelligent interface between the vehicle and the pilot, called the Pilot-Vehicle Interface. An executive controls and coordinates the different subsystems, and assimilates additional input information from sensors and mission processors. The Systems Status subsystem monitors the on-board aircraft components. This subsystem must continuously monitor and maintain the health of all the intemal systems of the aircraft. It must diagnose and predict faults, and automatically correct or compensate for these faults within the limits authorized by the pilot. This subsystem must also respond to an emergency either by advising the pilot or by automatically performing certain cockpit functions. The Situation Assessment subsystem monitors the extemal environment of the aircraft. This subsystem must provide an accurate and coherent assessment of the type, position, and intent of external entities that might affect the planned mission. The Situation Assessment subsystem comlates sensor information such as radar and intelligence information from external sources. The external entities of the aircraft could be either friend or foe, so this subsystem must assess both the action and intent of each external entity. The Mission Planning subsystem provides the pilot with appropriate information about the current plan and alternative plans as necessary. It updates the existing plan as events unfold and compares the pre-planned model with actual events. It must advise the pilot on the current phase of the mission and permit contingency planning and route replanning if the situation warrants. The Tactics Planner subsystem assists the pilot in responding to threats. This subsystem sorts and prioritizes the threats and targets of the aircraft and assists in countermeasure selection and weapons deployment. In addition, this subsystem helps coordinate the wingman roles. The Pilot-Vehicle Interface is the critical link between the other functional subsystems of the PA and the pilot. It controls the content and timing of the cockpit displays. It must display prioritized information to the pilot in a natural medium based on the mission context and the pilot’s intent. The role of the PVI will be explained further in the next section. The Executive controls the activities of the PA. The Executive allocates resources to the different subsystems, coordinates activities within the subsystems, and passes data between the subsystems. The Coglhve Decision AidiD/NAPS .. One of the main objectives of the D/NAPS program is to provide cognitive decision aiding to a single pilot flying a covert mission behind enemy lines in all types of environmental conditions around the clock. In contrast to the PA mission, D/NAPS is not an armed attack mission, and it must be capable of being performed at day or night and in adverse weather. In addition, the covert nature of the mission requires that most of the flying behind enemy lines occurs at Napof-th+Earth WOE) altitudes (as close to the earth’s surface as terrain and conditions allow). The demanding conditions under which the D/NAPS mission is flown provide significant challenges to an AI system, the main goals of which are to increase mission effectiveness and survivability and to reduce pilot workload. The expert system components of the D/NAPS program are referred to as the Cognitive Decision Aiding System (CDAS). The CDAS Contains the same five modules as used by the PA program, however the functionality of each module will vary slightly. The Mission Planner performs mute planning. The Tactical Planner performs near-term I

JFACC: Command and Control - What Army Air Defense Commanders Need to Know

Abstract: : This study provides the reader with a historical overview of the command and control of United States air assets during joint operations. It traces the evolution of the role of the Joint Force Air Component Commander to include mission, function, roles, and structure that are essential to the Joint Force Commander for planning, coordinating, and controlling his combat air power. It provides view of the issues arising from interservice command and control procedures. These issues are derived from joint air operations that include Army ground based air-defense systems, United States Air Forces aircraft, United States Marine Corps Aviation Task Force, and Naval Carrier Task Force aircraft. The study draws on current join publications on command and control of the Joint Force Commander's air assets. Each service's doctrine on the planning, coordination, allocation, and tasking of air assets in a theater of operations is reviewed. Other documents, letters, memos, and papers that relate to the study further classify the interservice issues of disagreement. Army Air Defense Commanders should be aware of the issues because they fight in a joint force and may be under the command and control of either a USAF, Naval, or Marine Corps Air Component Commander.

A Systems Analysis to Identify Human Factors Issues and Requirements for Data Link

Abstract: When developing a complex system, it is often difficult to identify the human factors issues and requirement areas associated with the system. We have developed a systematic methodology to identify human factors issues and requirement areas based on an information flow model of the system, the form of which is determined by a taxonomy of automation. We have tested the methodology on an analysis of data link, which is a communications technology intended to replace much of the air-to-ground voice communications in commercial transport aircraft. Our analysis addresses such areas as what factors may contribute to errors and what the effects of those errors may be, Cockpit Resource Management (CRM) effects and requirements, pilot and air traffic controller situation awareness and workload, and the design of the Human-Computer Interface (HCI). The analysis has brought to light a number of potentially critical issues that have not yet been addressed in the data link literature. Although the analysis does not yi...