Showing papers on "Value (ethics) published in 1972"

On the Concept of Ideology in Political Science

Abstract: Although the term “ideology” is ubiquitous in modern political discourse, it is used in diverse and usually ambiguous ways which limit its value as an analytical concept. The main ambiguity arises from the fact that, as most writers use it, the concept of ideology does not provide criteria for distinguishing ideological thought from nonideological thought. Lacking this power to make concrete discriminations, the concept fails to achieve empirical relevance. This paper attempts to remedy that deficiency and save the concept of ideology for the explanation of politics. The problem of conceptualization is approached by viewing ideology primarily as a cultural phenomenon. As such, it is argued, ideology has characteristics that distinguish it from other symbol systems. Of special importance in this regard is the identification of basic differentia between ideology on the one hand, and myth and Utopia (with which ideology is often confused) on the other. The features of ideology identified in this comparative analysis are then discussed in fuller detail with a view to understanding (1) the significance of ideology in politics, and (2) the way in which the concept of ideology can help us to understand politics, insofar as politics involves ideology.

Anticipated communication and mass media information-seeking

Abstract: T 18HIS INVESTIGATION focuses on the concept of communicatory utility, defined as the anticipated usefulness of information for future informal interaction with family, friends, co-workers and acquaintances. The present report describes findings from an experiment and two secondary analyses relating news media use to interpersonal discussion of news events. While researchers have not specifically tested the link between mass media exposure and expected conversational experiences, many have cited the role of social relationships in understanding why people attend to mass communications.1 The specific interpersonal motive of social prestige from displaying current events knowledge was suggested as an explanation of news seeking behavior by Merton,2 Berelson,3 Wright,4 and Waples, Berelson and Bradshaw.5 1 E.g., Eliot Friedson, "Communications Research and the Concept of the Mass," American Sociological Review, Vol. 18, 1953, pp. 313-317; Matilda Riley and Samuel Flowerman, "Group Relations as a Variable in Communications Research," American Sociological Review, Vol. i6, 1951, pp. 174-180. 2 Merton concluded: "The analysis of the functions of mass communications require prior analysis of the social roles which determine the uses to which these communications can and will be put. Had the social contexts of interpersonal influence not been explored, we could not have anticipated the selection of Time by one type of influential and its rejection by another." Robert Merton, Social Theory and Social Structure, New York, The Free Press, 1949, pp. 406-409. 3 Berelson observed: "Another group of readers seem to use the newspaper because it enables them to appear informed in social gatherings. Thus the newspaper has conversational value. Readers not only can learn what has happened and then report it to their associates, but can also find opinions and interpretations for use in discussions of public affairs. It is obvious how this use of the newspaper serves to increase the reader's prestige among his fellows." Bernard Berelson, "What 'Missing the Newspaper' Means," in Paul Lazarsfeld and Frank Stanton, eds., Communications Research, 1948-1949, New York, Harper, 1949, p. 119. 4 Charles Wright, "Functional Analysis and Mass Communication," Public Opinion Quarterly, Vol. 24, 1960, pp. 605-62o. 6 Douglas Waples, Bernard Berelson, and Franklyn Bradshaw, What Reading Does to People, Chicago, University of Chicago Press, 1940.

Effects of representational role obligations on the process of children's distribution of resources

Abstract: The effects of a representative's role obligations on attempts to reach a decision by two children on a distribution of resources ("chips") between them was examined in two experiments. Subjects played a game in which they alternated distribution suggestions until they agreed on a distribution. In the first experiment, contestants (male subjects) who were delegated to represent a teammate took longer to reach a decision, rejected more of their opponent's offers, moved more "chips" toward themselves and were more equally "competitive" than nonrepresentatives. While role obligations did not affect verbal statements made following each offer, a communication set manipulation did, with "justifiers" making more self-centered statements and fewer value statements than "persuaders." The second experiment was designed to separate audience-presence and anticipation of splitting "winnings" with one's teammate from role obligations. The representation main effect obtained in the first study was replicated on some of the indices for male subjects. Neither audience presence nor splitting of winnings affected males' negotiating behavior. Females, on the other hand, were not responsive to role obligations

Moral Death: A Kantian Essay on Psychopathy

Abstract: This paper is concerned with an examination of the rights and responsibilities of those individuals having what psychoanalysts, psychiatrists, and psychologists call psychopathic, sociopathic, or antisocial personalities.3 But it is also what Wilfrid Sellars has called a set of “variations on a Kantian theme.” For in coming to terms with the concept of psychopathy, one is also forced to come to terms with the question of what it is to be a person — an individual having the value which Kant calls “dignity” (Wurde) and thereby meriting that special kind of respect which in entailed by a moral commitment to justice rather than mere utility. I developed some thoughts on this in my book Kant: The Philosophy of Right, and this paper represents further thinking on the issue and a substantial rejection of much that I said in the book. In the book I argued (against H. J. Paton, primarily) that it is Willkur (capacity to choose) and not Wille (moral autonomy) which confers dignity or worth upon persons. In thinking about the psychopath, however, and in trying to develop a rational defense for my intuition that any such individuals would lack dignity or worth as persons, I have come to think that Paton was right after all — that it is Wille or moral autonomy, and not merely the capacity to choose, which makes the moral difference. Paton, however, had never been successful in articulating a theoretical defense for his correct intuition; and filling this theoretical gap will be one of my primary tasks in what follows.4

The Party of Eros: Radical Social Thought and the Realm of Freedom

Abstract: In this provocative study, the author treats Goodman, Marcuse, and Brown as the three most important radical social theorists in America since the end of World War II. His reasoned conclusions will attract anyone interested in the nonpolitical background of today's radical social thought. Originally published 1972. A UNC Press Enduring Edition -- UNC Press Enduring Editions use the latest in digital technology to make available again books from our distinguished backlist that were previously out of print. These editions are published unaltered from the original, and are presented in affordable paperback formats, bringing readers both historical and cultural value.

Presidential Preferences and Freedom-Equality Value Patterns in the 1968 American Campaign

Abstract: (1972). Presidential Preferences and Freedom-Equality Value Patterns in the 1968 American Campaign. The Journal of Social Psychology: Vol. 88, No. 2, pp. 207-212.

Sectarianism, World View, and Anomie

Abstract: Sectarianism is often viewed as reaction to anomie due to economic deprivation or migration. It is argued here that rather than resulting from anomie per se, sectarianism reflects a particular world view, which is formed by individuals from the lower classes and rural areas and having lower levels of reading. All data are from Southern Appalachian Presbyterians. One genre of sociologists of religion interprets religion as an expression of world view. Geertz (1968:406) has written that "in religious belief and practice a people's style of life . . . is rendered intellectually reasonable; it is shown to represent a way of life ideally adapted to the world as it 'really' . . . is." Bellah (1968:413) states that religion provides an "individual or a group with the most general model that it has of itself and its world...." It will be the view here that religious ideology is related to social class and additional variables involved in the formation of one's world view. Of special interest to Weber (1963) was the prevalence of magical beliefs and practices among peasants in contrast to the less traditional urbanites. Today's counterpart of magical beliefs and practices for rural, lower-class Americans is sectarianism, which can be conceived as one particular orientation toward reality, tending toward a Hobbesian view of life as "solitary, poor, nasty, brutish, and short." A more Old Testament view of God emerges here, a conception of God as wrathful and as righteous judge, rather than loving savior (see Brewer, 1962:205-207; Pearsall, 1959:106-126). Man's response is emotional and fatalistic; often backsliding, he is "saved" on occasions of revival. On the other hand, researchers have sometimes directly linked sectarianism with anomie. From a study of Puerto Rican migrants to New York City who attended store-front churches, Poblete and O'Dea (1960:25, reprinted in O'Dea, 1970) observed that "the sect represents a response of the restructuralization of religious attitudes and orientations in a condition of what Durkheim has called anomie." Suggesting that the sect resembles a quest for community, the authors interpreted the formation of sects as "a way out of anomie" (for additional assessments of the linkage between anomie and sectarianism, see Bell, 1957; Dean, 1968; Glock, 1964; Keedy, 1958). The strongest statement of this view of sectarianism was made by Holt (1940) who linked sectarianism with migration of rural people to the city and the resultant cultural shock. Dynes (1956:26), however, observed that Holt's cultural shock theory implies that sectarianism should be related to recent migration to the city. Finding no association between recency of migration and sectarianism, Dynes (1956:28) concluded that "the significance of sectarianism lies in its association with lower socioeconomic status" and that "rurality and migration are important only insofar as they are status indicators." Dynes (1956:26) reported that he drew his sample from the Columbus, Ohio, directory; and subsequently Glock and Stark (1965:189) have noted that the sampling frame was "biased against the geographically mobile and the lower classes." From a secondary analysis of data from earlier surveys by Lenski (1963) and Ford (1962), Nelsen and Whitt (1972) compared Southern migrants to Detroit with Southern [226] * The data presented here were collected in 1967 under a grant from the Boards of Christian Education of the United Presbyterian Church U.S.A. and the Presbyterian Church U.S. Thomas R. Ford and Earl D. C. Brewer kindly made available Southern Appalachian Studies data for use in preparing scales at a preliminary stage of this study. Mayer N. Zald, Leo Rigsby, and Anne K. Nelsen made helpful comments on an earlier version of this paper. This content downloaded from 157.55.39.142 on Sun, 25 Sep 2016 04:49:14 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms Sectarianism and Anomie / 227 Appalachians and nonmigrants residing in Detroit. They concluded that the migrant did not experience culture shock and turn to sectlike religious expressions. Instead, migrants fell midway between rural and urban residents on religious and anomie patterns. In sum, the research by Holt and by Poblete and O'Dea links sectarianism and disorganization, while the study by Dynes and the secondary analysis by Nelsen and Whitt seemingly deny this relationship; thus there would be considerable value in a more direct testing of the relationship. Rather than resulting from economic deprivation and a state of anomie per se, sectarianism is interpreted as a reflection of world view formed by individuals with limited, or simplistic, outlooks, i.e., from the lower classes and from rural areas. There is a correlation between religious ideology and life experiences, with sectarianism providing a simplistic interpretation of life as experienced by marginal members of society. To claim that sectarianism solely represents a way out of anomie or a reaction to migration and culture shock is to place undue emphasis upon the role of anomie in the development of sectarianism. Providing one interpretation of lower-class life which includes "a generally greater tendency to personal demoralization" (Mizruchi, 1964), sectarianism does place strong emphasis upon fatalism, however. For anomie to be the cause or to intervene in the process contributing to sectarianism, with the independent variables of class and residence controlled, the relationship between anomie and sectarianism should remain; and with anomie controlled, the relationship between class and residence and sectarianism should diminish. This is the relationship that will be tested in this paper. Instead, we expect to find reading level (being one measure of the individual's penchant for abstract conceptualizing) to act as an intervening variable, whereas anomie should not act in this fashion.

Veblen's Ideal Political Economy and Its Critics

Abstract: THORSTEIN VEBLEN (1857-1929) has been called by Max Lerner "the most creative mind American social thought has produced." The late C. Wright Mills has referred to him as "the best critic of America that America has produced (1)." He has also been called a peasant, a subversive, and an embittered, unsuccessful, iconoclastic professor with loose morals and a view of capitalism that was both unjust and inaccurate. Although Veblen ranks at the top of the hierarchy of American theorists of his time, it is not our major task here to become involved in the continuing dispute about his merits as theorist and social critic. Instead, we are concerned with clarifying Veblen's vision of the ideal political economy by scrutinizing this misunderstanding which has arisen about his value commitments on the part of other scholars. Before we proceed with our analysis of Veblen's ideal political economy and what we contend are the errors of some of his critics, it is essential to

Changing Concepts of Morality: 1948–69

Abstract: Quantitative content analysis of selected issues of the Ladies Home Journal revealed shifts in value orientations-most notably from future to present and from doing to being A qualitative analysis relates these findings to behavior changes and life-style as portrayed in these same issues and places particular emphasis on concepts of morality Several trends are noted: (1) morality as a rather permanent inflexible set of standards becomes a more fluid concept which each defines for himself; (2) the use of psychological explanation for understanding behaviors becomes increasingly used to justify behaviors; (3) the importance of mental health for the good of family and society gives way to concern with psychological adjustments to meet the needs of the individual; (4) a not altogether clear relationship appears between the housewife's need to turn outward beyond home and family responsibility and her changing attitudes toward marriage The study of values presents a challenge to those who seek to base research on substantive quantifiable data and to obtain results that are readily replicated The late Clyde Kluckhohn (1958:149) noted this problem in his review of the literature on American values and value changes up to 1958 Kluckhohn found rather consistent agreement among the authors as to which values were dominant and general agreement on those values which were undergoing change He noted however, that the great majority of these useful studies were impressionistic in nature rather than based upon rigorous empirical study Robin Williams, (1967:30-32) in discussing the search for indicators of American values also refers to the elusive nature of values and suggests that a most fruitful source of evidence on attitudes and value orientations is to be found in the output of the mass media He suggests that content analysis can provide a relatively objective measurable method for the analysis of values and he cites a number of studies which have successfully used this approach This paper reports on the use of both quantitative and qualitative content analysis of a mass circulation periodical to detect change in value orientations It covers the result of a study which, through the use of quantitative content analysis of selected issues (117) of the Ladies Home Journal over the period 1948-69 detected discernible shifts in the expression of certain value orientations A qualitative analysis of these same issues supported the quantitative findings and provided descriptions of the behavior changes which accompanied the observed value-orientation shifts' The study was based upon the assumption that the mass media is a valid source for indicators of values Admittedly, this assumption is subject to debate, but there is a growing body of literature to suggest that the media not only reflect but affect public values and attitudes (Peterson et al, 1965; Selltiz, 1959) Berelson and Janowitz (1966:2-3) suggest that the weaknesses of the early studies which were the cause of the severest criticisms stemmed in large part from the tendency to seek relatively straightforward cause and effect relationships They suggest that more recent studies point the way to a more successful ap*This article is based upon material collected for a MA thesis entitled "Value Orientation, Behavior and Technoeconomic Shifts and Changing Roles for Women," at the University of Massachusetts under the direction of Dr Oriol PiSunyer 1 The material presented in this paper is part of a larger study which supported the hypothesis that content analysis of a popular woman's periodical could detect changes in the value orientations, attitudes, and behavior of the housewife toward work and leisure in a period during which technoeconomic changes affected the character of the homemaker's work and her working day

Toward a Reconstruction of Voluntary Association Theory

Abstract: C. Wright Mills would have enjoyed writing an essay about the contemporary research on voluntary associations. He would have found two of his favourite enemies: abstracted empericism, and a species of value bias similar to that of the 'social pathologists' whom he despisedonly in this case the bias is not rural romanticism but suburbanitis. The only missing polemic would be the one on grand theory. The reason is quite obvious: there is not much theory on voluntary associations, grand or otherwise. By ignoring the contributions of anthropologists, philosophers, political scientists, economists, and religious scholars we have lost touch with the contextual issues which might have helped to control bias and particularism.' The matter has been made worse within sociology by treating voluntary associations as a separate topic or simply as a dependent variable in community participation studies, while not placing the topic in the context of general organizational research.2 As a consequence of this specious parochialism one frequently encounters romantic notions about participatory democracy, such as: community members unite in the pursuit of common interests of their own free will, gain satisfaction with democracy, and satisfy the need to belong. The impression that a new theoretical start was needed grew out of the experience of trying to explain some findings regarding the voluntary associations of Negroes in a southern U.S. city.3 Available research provided no theory to explain the observation that co-racial social relations at work were a basic source of community participation, or that voluntary associations apparently took action contrary to their stated purposes. The object of this paper is to develop a theoretical approach which more adequately accounts for the social environment in which voluntary associations exist. To this end, two kinds of relationships with the organization are examined. The first concerns those aspects of opposition and support which the organization, and its members in member

Religion and the Social Sciences: Conflict or Reconciliation?

Abstract: I offer an account of Weston La Barre's The Ghost Dance to indicate the continuing vitality of a Freudian ideological attack on religious beliefs and behavior. A contemporary group of social scientists, chiefly featuring Bellah, Geertz,and Luckmann, could possibly meet La Barre's sociopsychiatric challenge to religion. I examine their reliance on functional definitions of religion as a conciliatory measure designed to overcome the conflict between religious belief and the social scientific study of religion. Despite certain logical and empirical problems in the use of functional definitions of religion, I conclude that theoretical advances have been achieved in their writings. But in a more philosophical context, which is where La Barre's analysis really belongs, I suggest that their positions are logically insufficient as a rejoinder. The bridge between religion and social science, therefore, may yet contain some shaky girders. V ERY little out-and-out hostility toward religious claims and behavior is found nowadays in the works of social scientific observers of religion. Most anthropological, sociological, and psychological analyses of the religious aspects of human life are either staunchly "neutral" as regards the value or truth in religion, or decidedly conciliatory. An influential group of contemporary social scientists, some of whom fall into a category Roland Robertson calls "Sociotheologians" (1971: 309), is indeed conciliatory, self-consciously and for compelling theoretical reasons. But those of us who are interested in the vagaries of how social scientific investigation relates to religion go astray if we, overly sanguine, neglect the old but not yet tired antagonisms. We all know that much of the social scientific study of religion is rooted in a basically antireligious tradition. To be sure, authors such as Durkheim may have insisted on the necessity of a religious system for the adequate functioning of a society and even for its very being, but most earlier interpreters of religion have explicitly rejected for themselves the notion that any particular religion's claims about reality could in fact be true. Representatives such as Tylor and Spencer of an intellectualist approach to religion were convinced philosophical naturalists. For them, not practices, but beliefs about a nonempirical or supernatural world constituted the real essence of religion. Modern man, they believed, could now know that no religious beliefs were true, and so religion ought to have little utility in enlightened people's lives. If a religion is not true in any cognitive sense, then to traffic with it in one's personal life is virtually immoral.

Ideological and Economic Development in Tanzania

Abstract: Serious consideration of ideology and economic progress is singularly appropriate at this stage in East Africa's history, in relation to the Uganda coup and the current difficulties between Tanzania and Uganda. Both events have a crucial ideological dimension and have already had deep repercussions on the economy of the two countries and of the East African Community as a whole. That the subject is appropriate, however, does not render it any easier to deal with adequately. At the outset, I encountered four basic problems. First, the very definition of “economic performance” is itself an ideological decision, in that ultimately it requires a value-judgment on the relative importance of various possible indices of achievement. Whether rapid expansion in per capita income is more significant than the creation of a slower-growing but more regionally and sectorally balanced economy; what division is appropriate between current consumption and investment for future consumption; what economic value is attached to a certain pattern of ownership of the means of production, or to a particular policy of distribution of the economic surplus--all of these basic questions about the economic objectives of a society can only be answered ultimately by reference to ideological values. This interdependence between the terms of the topic is an index of its complexity.

Dialectical Sociology: An Exemplar for the 1970s

Abstract: The three levels of "paradigms" held applicable to all knowledge communities by Thomas Kuhn are discussed, and the fourth-exemplars-deemed by Kuhn to be applicable only to natural scientific communities, is found to be of heuristic value in comprehending the paradigmatic communal life of sociologists as well. This is illustrated through the presentation of an exemplar rooted in a dialectical epistemology conditioned by a "prophetic" self-image consciously in dialogue with one's existential commitments and offered as a likely archetype of one of the paradigmatic modes which social research is apt to take in the 1970s. paradigm, n. 1) Gram. a) a set of forms all of which contain a particular element, esp. the set of all inflected forms based on a single stem or theme.... 2) an example; pattern.... -Syn. 2. model, mold, ideal standard, paragon, touchstone exemplar, n. 1) a model or pattern to be copied or imitated... 2) a typical example or instance. 3) an original or archetype ... (Stein,

Teaching Human Sexuality: The Use of Discussion Groups and Teaching Aides in a College Course

Abstract: There is a challenge for teachers of college classes in family life and sex education to find ways of teaching and learning which emphasize the human in human sexuality and yet produce a solid foundation of research-based information. In a society with great diversity of sexual value systems, the temptation in academia is to focus on "the facts" and pretend that they neither grow out of nor fall into a value stance. Yielding to that temptation merely perpetuates the separation of the psycho-socio-personal dimensions of human sexuality from the intellectual understanding of them. Readings, quizzes, and lectures have an important place in providing students with the very important informational material which is needed. But there also needs to be an opportunity for personal reflection, personal interaction, and confrontation with a variety of sexual value stances. As a beginning in this direction, the Family and Child Science Department course at Michigan State University, Human Sexuality and the Family, utilizes small peer group (six-person) interaction as one of the major components of the course. The core groups are seated together for all class sessions, allowing the possibility that even on days of lectures or other presentation, there may be a brief time for interaction in the core group.

Chance and the Hierarchy of Marriages in Pride and Prejudice

Abstract: Chance is given significance in Jane Austen's novels by her insistence on the value of its opposite-rational and deliberate choice. And it is an important aspect of her realism that she does not divide choice and chance into two mutually exclusive forces. Ideal choice made in full awareness of motives and consequences is, after all, a rare occurrence in her novels. Few characters achieve it at all, and they more often reach it as a climax rather than as the norm of their moral life. In general decision and action are determined by a variously composed mixture of choice and chance, and only as a given character increases his knowledge of self and others does choice begin to predominate. Little critical comment has been devoted to the operation of chance in Jane Austen's works, perhaps because it has been eclipsed by the tightness of her plots and the preeminently unchaotic sanity of her ideals. But Lionel Trilling has wisely observed that " Jane Austen's first or basic irony is the recognition that the spirit is not free, that it is conditioned, that it is limited by circumstance " and that " only by reason of this anomaly does spirit have virtue and meaning." ' Just as the spirit is morally dependent on and made meaningful by uncontrolled circumstance, so also is plot enriched by Jane Austen's consciousness of chance. W. J. Harvey, in discussing the plot of Emma, attributes the " solidity and openness of the novel " to the fact that "'it allows for the contingent." 2 Again, Lionel Trilling finds Mansfield Park more unique than typical in its "need to find security, to establish, in fixity and enclosure, a refuge from the dangers of openness and chance."' Paul Zietlow presents by far the most extensive analysis of

The Diagnosis Game

Abstract: To the Editor.— I was appalled by the article by Drs. Schneiderman and Muller entitled "The Diagnosis Game" (219:333, 1972). We have become excessively gadget-oriented in recent years; one of the greatest criticisms of our profession is our apparent loss of human contact with our patients. This little game with the computer, although of considerable value I am sure, can have only one major effect upon developing medical students: a dehumanizing of clinical medicine. In strict terms of medical education, a student who places laboratory tests above a careful history and physical examination (which adds much subtle emotional and observational information not easily programmed into a computer!) is not my idea of a doctor.

Crime Prevention Through Environmental Design

Abstract: 'The book is of value to those involved in the teaching and practive of criminology and to those in the fields of genetics, psychology, learning theory, environmental psychology, and urban design. It should be considered a must for any criminal justice library.' -- Choice, May 1978

Individual Preferences and Distributional Adjustments

Abstract: Common, by training, to economists is a belief that distributional adjustments must rest on an extra-economic social welfare function, capable of the interpersonal utility comparisons which ordinal utility precludes Without such an ordering of social states-which need not be true to the preferences of citizen-consumerswelfare economics, as a basis for advocacy, is limited to Pareto-efficient measures, which are thought to preclude distributional counsel It is, therefore, open to criticism that it institutionalizes the status quo This assessment, if correct, is crippling It suggests that for economists ethics and justice are intractable, even though ethics is largely a matter of men's preferences on rules of behavior in dealing with others, and preferences are the cornerstone of the neoclassical theory of value It is troubling because economic policy can only avoid distributional side effects under the most restrictive of assumptions, thus calling into question all normative judgments, couched in language of Pareto efficiency, which claim independence of equity considerations As our radical colleagues have chided us, conventional economics, in downgrading the distributional component of social policies, all too often produces semi-answers to semi-problems, with dubious relevance This essay explores whether the limits of economics, as the Pareto criterion reflects them, are as restrictive as they seem, or whether neoclassical logic, duly modified, permits meaningful answers to distributional questions Starting with individual preferences, it spells out what economists can conclude about the desirability of distributional adjustments, though it nowhere implies that the Pareto criterion is a proper limit on social policy or that the Paretian ethic identifies a uniquely preferred income distribution

Problem-solving, Composing, and Liberal Education.

Abstract: to misguided action, are, one hopes, to be replaced during the student's college studies by increased power to identify assumptions, perceive accurately and judge wisely what is important in his experiences, recognize and appraise options, determine the value of opinions and actions, and thus to respond more sensitively and constructively to the demands of adult and professional life. Courses in the composing of so-called "expository" prose, some of them devoted to the study of rhetorical theory and the practice of rhetorical techniques, appear frequently in curricula said to be devoted to these

Discussion of Assessing the Validity of a Theory of Human Resource Value: A Field Study

Abstract: Flamholtz's research centers around the "expected realizable value" as the measure of an individual's actual worth to an organization. Suppose that we accept the expected realizable value as a measure. The prediction of expected services can be made in different ways such as (1) the extrapolation of past services rendered, (2) the extrapolation of the individual's earnings after making adjustments for his particular contribution to the firm, and (3) by relating the individual's services to behavioral characteristics such as the ones Flamholtz describes in his model, etc. The choice of a prediction method must be based on comparing the performance of the alternative methods in terms of predicting the actual services. The question becomes: Did Flamholtz perform such a test? And this question brings me to his specific field of study. The study is assumed to test "the validity of aspects of a model of the nature and determinants of a person's value to a formal organization." But the field experiment described was only an attempt to identify the determinants of the perceived worth of 39 accountants by listening to the discussions of two personnel managers. In this paper it was neither hypothesized nor shown that the perceived worth of an individual as reflected through ranking is predictably related to his actual worth to the organization. Below, I shall discuss the study only in light of the more limited objective which I interpret as an attempt to identify the criteria used by personnel managers to rank a specified set of workers according to specified value dimensions.

Morality and Individual Development: A Basis for Value Education.

Abstract: This paper presents a comprehensive theory of the development of morality in childhood. It is intended to serve as a basis for understanding the dynamics of value acquisition and preparing suitable educational strategies. Characteristics of morality at various stages of development are discussed. It is argued that, to be effective, educational techniques must complement the dynamics of moral experience at each stage of development. Generalizations are made concerning major considerations for an effective program of value education. The model is intended to have particular application to sex and family life education since this is a major source of controversy in the contemporary crisis of values in American education.

Value orientations of sensation-seekers.

Abstract: The theoretical, economic, aesthetic, social, political, and religious value orientations of individuals varying on a personality dimension of stimulation or sensation-seeking were studied. 40 college students were given the Allport-Vernon-Lindzey Study of Values and the Sensation-seeking Scale. “Sensation-seekers” tended to place importance on aesthetic values and deemphasized economic values, but no significant relationship of sensation-seeking to theoretical, social, political, and religious values was indicated

Theory and the Study of Politics

Abstract: Political science or political studies or government is a rather odd subject, something of a mixture, as indicated by its diverse origins and the various influences which have moulded it. In our universities it was affected by and grew out of the study of the classics, philosophy, law and jurisprudence, economics, history, geography, literature, and so on. The list of pre-existing and established academic subjects which acted as a sort of hydra-headed godfather is considerable. An important impulse in its development was provided, too, by ideology and practical purpose. I have in mind here the ethos represented, for instance, by the Webbs and the foundation of the LSE, by the teaching of people such as Cole, Laski, Hobhouse, Tawney and, more remotely, Green and Jowett. The idea was that the subject was one of considerable pragmatic value and offered practical advantages to be achieved, perhaps, by some sort of reforming doctrinal emphasis. But the general effect of this variety of influences and stress is that there is no obvious or uniform academic focus: the subject seems (in terms of the intellectual and other forces at work) essentially eclectic. Nevertheless something like a traditional form did emerge. Generally there was a distinction between ‘institutions’ and ‘theory’, though naturally, given the dissimilar sources and influences mentioned, what has been comprised by these titles has varied somewhat. ‘Institutions’, for example, could cover a concentration on the formal machinery of government simply or it might expand to embrace parties, groups, the formation of opinion and so on.

Program Analysis in Arts Education.

Abstract: Three blind men found themselves confronted by a strange animal on the road. "I've got him by the neck, which is extremely long; it's a giraffe," said the first man. "These sharp curved horns tell me it's a water buffalo," chimed in the second man. "The thick hide is that of a rhinoceros," said the third. Each man had grabbed a different part of the beast, and since their concepts of him, constructed from the information each man had, were widely varying, they never did agree as to just what kind of creature was the object of their mutual inquiry. What they failed to do, of course, was to get themselves organized, to pool their impressions and consider the data in a rational and systematic fashion. Each of us, in our own world, also reaches out, tries to grab reality, and make some sense of things. In education our interpretation of the realities confronted has profound consequences, especially in this era of "replicable models" and national dissemination of research and project findings. Thus evaluation has become an integral component of every innovative effort in education, in order that it can be demonstrated that, in fact, the program brings about the changes claimed for it. An entire industry (psychometrics) has evolved to assess the effects of new programs on learning, teaching, and related aspects of school life. As never before, the assumptions on which educational schemes are based have been subjected to an astonishing barrage of systematic and occasionally objective studies. Through modern storage-retrieval methods educators have at their disposal libraries full of information on every imaginable behavior and phenomena to be found in the schools. But as with the three blind men, the efforts of evaulation in education may go awry. We also frequently take hold of elephantine problems and do an inadequate job of analysis. The weaknesses of evaluation procedures and instruments are legion. Social and behavioral scientists, who supply the bulk of our empirical procedures, are under increasing fire as the limitations of traditional assessment methodology are exposed. New evaluation designs will have to be generated to cope with the broad-based criticisms of assessment practices as well as with the rising tempo of doubt and discord over the value of contemporary educational practices. The major drawbacks of traditional evaluation which will be the concern here is its emphasis on "outcome" or terminal performance. For example, determining the success or failure of curriculum innovation on the basis of total change, perceived between pretest and post-test situations, is a convenient but insufficient measure of the manifold variables which deserve consideration. Terminal assessment hinders consideration of

National Goal Formation in a Time of Transition

Abstract: Discontinuous change of institutions, values, concepts, etc. is the characteristic of the world today. In the face of this discontinuous change the methods of goal setting remain essentially unchanged in the traditional steady-state mold. In times of transition such as now we must be able to learn how to handle large quantities of unstructured and unfamiliar information, often qualitative in nature, which exceeds the capacity of the unaided human mind. The hallmark of our present society is the success of science and technology in meeting our dated social goal. This, in turn, has caused the absolute need for reexamination of the values and goals in relationship to science and technology. Yet, no new guide for this reexamination has yet been proposed. What we offer here is a viable alternative to steady-state resolutions?transition management. This approach to resolving the issues of value differences in times of discontinuous change is based on the premise that solutions to problems during transition can be attained effectively only if value differences are made explicit. The major elements in the management of discontinuous change require skills in supportive confrontation and conceptual mapping. These skills lead to making values explicit and then to the development of new insights and value relationships. This leads to the cognitive reformation of previously held value patterns and to emergent solutions to otherwise insoluble conflicts.

The family physician and the periodic health examination.

Abstract: This article attempts to answer six questions about the periodic health examination in order to establish whether it is of enough value to warrant the time spent. Such elements as early detection, risk factors, health behavior, disease outcome, evaluation methods and effects of long term therapy are considered, the conclusion being that while screening has some value, existing programs have little hope of reducing risk or even maintaining health in the general population. National and provincial bodies should support research into the effectiveness of various screening methods.

The "Myth" and "Value" Approaches to American Studies

Abstract: Seymour Martin Lipset, Revolution and Counter Revolution: Change and Persistence in Social Structures. Revised edition. Anchor Books, 1970. $2.25.416 pp. Revolution and Counter-Revolution is a collection of essays written be- tween 1963 and 1968 which develop the themes of Lipset's earlier works, Political Man and The First New Nation. The title is from an essay on Canadian/American contrasts, and may suggest both the fascination of the book and an element of caricature which may be inherent in its ap- proach. Lipset is pursuing a grand program of comparative political analy- sis, with emphasis on the evolutionary process of "modernization" and the national traits which influence its exact outcome. It is a work of great value to anyone interested in area studies, not only for the variety of use- ful information but for an exemplified method which may at the same time both focus and broaden that vaguest and most problematic of area programs, "American Studies."

Administrative Decisions and Cultural Values.

Abstract: The management of institutional life is affected by wider developments in culture. Two of these developments of particular significance for administrators are the growth and spread of the methods of systems theory and strategic planning, and popular enthusiasm for collegiate or participatory government. Distinctions traditionally made within the educational process and role ascriptions built on these have become blurred. Disengagement from value issues is not possible for administrators who will become increasingly involved in complex decisions affecting the value systems which are transmitted to the young. New educational programmes for administrators are needed to equip them with wider understanding of value issues, including the transformations in values which are characteristic of contemporary culture.

Theory and Practice: An Examination of the Platonic and Aristotelian Conceptions of Political Theory:

Abstract: N OUR DAY it is a commonplace in political science and the history of political thought to draw a number of sharp distinctions. Among our most cherished distinctions are those between theory and practice, thought and action, "is" and "ought," fact and value, normative and descriptive discourse, analytic and synthetic propositions, philosophy and science. Quite often, in order to gain a historical purchase on these distinctions, we look back to the beginnings of political philosophy. There we find, quite conveniently all too conveniently, I suspect the once-living personification, the very embodiment, of our own cherished distinctions. Plato, we are told, was the first political philosopher, Aristotle the first political scientist. Of course, the difference is not usually stated so baldly, but is more often subtle and indirect. Thus one may choose to look at their respective methods of inquiry, finding that Plato was given to a priori postulation and deductive theorizing, while Aristotle employed inductive methods of inquiry. Plato's method yields "truth," but merely analytic truth, i.e., that which is necessarily certain because of the linguistic conventions governing the use of key terms and propositions.' Aristotle's method, by contrast, yields testable empirical propositions which disclose "synthetic" truth. It would not be difficult to continue drawing out such distinctions between Plato and Aristotle, cast in a modern idiom which would be incomprehensible (not to say silly) to them. I shall attempt something else instead. My aim in this essay will not be to spell out the differences between the two thinkers, using my own language as a yardstick to measure their differences (nor to hit them with either, for that matter). Instead I shall, in a rather roundabout fashion, attempt to spell out the character of their differences. And, since there are too many varieties of difference between them to treat in an essay of this length, I shall concentrate most of my attention on a matter which has been of perennial interest to political theorists: the problem of the relationship between "theory" and "practice." How did each conceive of "theory"? Of "practice"? Did one have anything to do with the other, and if so, what was the character of this relationship as they saw it? These are the sorts of questions that will inform and guide my inquiry.