Showing papers on "Water supply published in 1980"

Evaluation for village water supply planning

Abstract: Provee orientaciones metodologicas, asi como informacion sustancial, sobre los varios componentes a considerar en la evaluacion de proyectos de abastecimiento rural de agua. Trata sobre los objetivos de la construccion de obras de abastecimiento de agua rural; la naturaleza de la tecnologia apropiada; la importancia de un buen sistema de operacion y mantenimiento; la necesidad de la vigilancia de la calidad del agua; la posibilidad de lograr beneficios a la salud; el rol de la participacion comunal; la importancia de servicios de comunicacion y extension; la dificultad de accesar a los grupos mas pobres; la necesidad de una administracion y planeamiento financiero eficaz, y otros parametros que unidos logran un programa de agua rural optimo

Water use in Syria and Palestine from the Neolithic to the Bronze Age

Abstract: By combining information from geography, archaeology and ethnography, the evolution of water technology in the Levant can be reconstructed and followed through the gradual development and diversification of water supply and storage systems during the period from the late ninth‐late second millennium B.C. As well as documenting the appearance of the individual components of traditional water use in the Levant ‐ water storage vessels, wells, cisterns, tunnels, canals and reservoirs, these features are considered in relation to village subsistence, town planning and public health.

Rural water and sanitation. Community participation in appropriate water supply and sanitation technologies: the mythology for the Decade.

Abstract: The International Drinking Water Supply and Sanitation Decade (1981-90) is almost upon us During this period, massive international efforts will be made to accelerate the provision of domestic water supply and sanitation facilities for the rural population of developing countries Certain concepts and approaches are being developed and promoted as guiding themes that will help to steer and coordinate the activities of the Decade Among them are 'appropriate technology' 'community participation' and a 'village level' or 'user-choice' approach The validity and importance of these concepts are discussed It is concluded that these concepts are often applied in an over-simplified manner and that they divert attention away from the fundamental political and administrative realities that primarily determine the success or failure of rural water and sanitation programmes

Factors Influencing Household Water Lead: A British National Survey

Abstract: From a survey of 2,831 households in Great Britain, a quantitive assessment was made of the combined influence of lead piping, acidity of water supply, and other factors on household water lead levels. Estimates are provided of the effects that remedial measures would have on blood lead levels in the population.

Peak Period Design Standards for Small Western U.S. Water Supply Systems

Abstract: In order to determine design capacities for various components of municipal and rural domestic water supply systems, engineers must estimate water requirements for an entire year (water rights), for the peak season (reservoir storage), for the peak day (pump or treatment plant size), and for peak hour (pipeline sizes). Historically, per capita water use rates have varied greatly between systems, particularly in semiarid regions where outdoor demands are large. The resulting uncertainty in design capacity estimates can cause either inadequate capacities or premature investment. In order to minimize that uncertainty multiple regression and frequency analyses were made of the various water demand parameters mentioned above for 14 systems in Utah and Colorado. Specifically, demand functions are reported for average month, peak month, and peak day. Peak hour demands were also studied but are reported in a different paper. The independent variables which were significant for monthly and daily demands were price of water and an outdoor use index which includes the effect of variation in landscaped area and accounts for use of supplementary ditch or pressure irrigation systems. The demand functions were developed with data from systems varying in size from very small low density rural systems to Salt Lake City's water system. The correlation coefficients (R2) vary from 0.80 to 0.95.

Cost Allocation in Water Resources Development - A Case Study of Sweden

Abstract: Methods for allocating the joint costs of a water supply facility among the different users are systematically compared using basic principles from game theory and fair division. It is shown that some of the more widely used methods, including the separable cost remaining benefit method, fail to satisfy some of these basic principles and that other lesser known methods appear to be more satisfactory. Application is made to a cost sharing problem among a group of Swedish municipalities developing a joint municipal water supply.

Bacterial Dynamics in a Water Supply Reservoir: A Case Study

Abstract: Adequate appraisal of the status of stored water quality and the detection of subtle ecological changes that may be occurring requires a microbiological sampling protocol that is sensitive to the three-dimensional aspects, of a large body of water and at the water-sediment interface The heterotrophic bacterial population of reservoir water is composed principally of gram-negative, nonspore-forming organisms38 The bacterial profile in water from high mountain, restricted access water supply reservoirs may be compared to high quality, groundwater-fed gravel pit lakes; ie, predominantly achromobacteria, pseudomonads, and corynebacteria39 with few occurrences of coliforms and other organisms of sanitary significance Where reservoirs and impoundments are located near human habitations or where many recreational activities are permitted, increased concentrations of fecal coliforms, fecal streptococci, and ofher organisms associated with sanitary wastes will occur Unless mixed by wind, water turbulence, stream inflows, or seasonal or artificial destratification, organisms of intestinal

Vulnerability of Water Supply Systems to Droughts

Abstract: This summary completion report describes the project work completed in three areas: 1) the development and preliminary testing of drought severity and vulnerabi lity ind~ces, 2) the impacts of Utah I s 1977 drought, and 3) an operation comparison of stochastic streamflow models. l'he drought indices were evaluated for three municipal and three irrigation water supply systems in Utah. It was concluded that a continuous loss function to define the effects of water shortage would be more appropriate than the existing assumption that droughtrelated losses occur suddenly at a certain degree of water shortage. Information on the impacts of Utah I s 1977 drought was collected by surveys of municipal and rural domestic systems, water users in Salt La,ke County, and farmers, stockmen, ranchers, and irrigation company officials. Survey results were used to examine drought effects in different regions of the state and with respect to size of municipal supply systems. Despite severe restrict ions placed on Salt Lake County water users most did not cons ider the experience an "undue burden." The comparison of five stochastic streamflow models on four Utah streams lead to a preliminary model choice strategy which is based on the historical estimates of the lag-one autocorrelation and Hurst coefficients.

Appropriate technology for water supply and sanitation : a summary of technical and economic options

Abstract: This paper is a summarized version of the final report on Appropriate Technology for Water, Supply and Waste Disposal in Developing Countries, a World Bank research project undertaken by the Energy, Water, and Telecommunications Department in 1976-78 It reports the broad technical, economic, health and social findings of the research and discusses the aspects of program planning necessary to implement the findings

Appropriate Technology for Water Supply and Sanitation: Sociocultural Aspects of Water Supply and Excreta Disposal

Abstract: Social and cultural factors influencing people's responses to water supply and excreta disposal technologies are investigated in seven case studies of communities in the rural and urban fringe areas of Latin America. The report describes the methodology and questionnaire used to investigate how sanitation and water supply problems are perceived and to what extent people would be willing to participate in projects to improve their existing situation. It summarizes each case study, including the technologies introduced and community response to them. The cross-community findings on perceptions, preferences, related practices, and the use of social science techniques to understand them are presented. Finally, the report focuses on the implications of the findings and suggests an approach that can be used by planners to integrate social and cultural factors into project design to ensure the introduction of water supply and excreta disposal technologies that will be accepted, properly used, and maintained.

Appropriate technology for water supply and sanitation. A planner's guide.

Abstract: This report provides information and instructions on how to design and implement appropriate technology projects based on the findings reported in Volume 1, Technical and Economic Options. It provides guidelines and design tools for the engineers and sanitarians responsible for planning and implementing sanitation

The rural ecology of the British drought of 1975–1976

Abstract: Britain, a nation with the most organized water system in the world, suffered a protracted drought in 1975–1976 This paper casts doubt on the assumption that its causes were natural, especially in rural areas, and presents some general principles regarding the process of responding to water supply problems The past and present water situation of Britain is described, and an account of the course of the drought and responses to it is presented

Benefits of maintaining a chlorine residual in water supply systems

Abstract: The protection afforded the water consumer by the maintenance of a chlorine residual in water distribution systems was evaluated in laboratory holding tanks and reservoirs and existing municipal water distribution systems. In the laboratory studies, tap water, adjusted to the appropriate pH, temperature and chlorine residual, was challenged with varying levels of autoclaved sewage seeded with Shigella sonnei, Salmonella typhimurium, coliform organisms (IMVIC H — ) , poliovirus 1, and f2 bacterial virus. Comparative survivals of these microorganisms were evaluated over two hour periods. As expected, microbial inactivation was increased by lower pH, higher temperature, higher initial chlorine concentration, and lower sewage concentration. An initial free chlorine residual was more effective than an equivalent initial combined chlorine residual. Generally, S. sonnei, S. typhimurium and coliform organisms were inactivated at the same rate but poliovirus 1 was more resistant and f2 was the most resistant. At pH 8, with an initial free chlorine residual of 0.7 mg/liter, and sewage added to levels of up to 1% by volume, 3 logs or greater bacterial inactivation was obtained within 60 minutes. Viral inactivation under these conditions was less than 2 logs. In reservoir studies, where the residual chlorine is replenished by inflow of fresh uncontaminated chlorinated tap water, greater inactivation was observed at the higher sewage concentration levels tested. 986 samples were collected from the Baltimore (850) and Frederick (136) water distribution systems and assayed for coliforms. Standard plate counts, 35°C plate at 4 days (PC 4) and 20°C plate at 9 days (PC 9) were made and turbidity, pH, temperature and chlorine residual measurements were taken. Coliforms were rarely found in the Baltimore system and infrequently recovered from the Frederick system. Significant positive correlation (>_ 95% level) were observed in both water systems for PC 4 and PC 9 versus turbidity and temperature. Significant negative correlation (>_ 95% level) were observed for PC 4 and PC 9 versus chlorine residual. The maintenance of a free chlorine residual was found to be the single most effective measure for maintaining a low plate count in the distribution system. More than 6000 isolates from the 20°C and 35°C plate counts were further studied and classified into 43 functional groups based on seven biochemical characteristics. Eight groups made up 76% of the observed microorganisms. Although the frequency of isolation and level of these groups was variable from sample to sample and station to station, only few groups of microorganisms predominated at each of the incubation temperatures and in each of the distribution systems. This report was submitted in fulfillment of grant No. R804307 by the Johns Hopkins University under the sponsorship of the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. This report covers the period July 1, 1976, to June 30, 1979, and work completed as of January 31, 1979.

Environment and water development in Third World

Abstract: Water resources development is an essential component for further improvement in the life style of the people of the third world. Community water supply is a basic necessity, but water is necessary to improve agricultural yields, increase hydroelectric power generation and for further industrial development. Water resources projects invariably change river and ecosystems regimes, some of which are adverse. Hence, the real question is not whether such changes will have social and environmental impacts, but rather how much changes is acceptable to society and how can the adverse change be kept to a minimum. The changes can be broadly divided into three major subsystems—physical, biological and human. Within this general framework, environmental implications of water developments in the developing countries are considered, with concrete examples of such changes from different parts of the world. Special mention is made of the Aswan Dam on the Nile.

Appropriate technology for water supply and sanitation : a sanitation field manual

Abstract: A convenient supply of safe water and the sanitary disposal of human wastes are essential ingredients for a healthy, productive life. Unsafe water can spread disease; water that is not conveniently located results in the loss of productive time and energy by the water carrier -- usually women or children; and inadequate facilities for excreta disposal reduce the potential benefits of a safe water supply by transmitting pathogens from infected to healthy persons. Invariably it is the poor who suffer the most from the absence of safe water and sanitation. One of the fundamental problems in any attempt to provide necessary sanitation services is their cost. This manual looks at the concept of sanitation program planning, which is the process by which the most appropriate sanitation technology for a given community is identified, designed and implemented. The most appropriate technology is defined as that which provides the most socially and environmentally acceptable level of service at the least economic cost. As part of the sanitation planning process, the existing or likely future pattern of domestic water use should be ascertained so that the most appropriate method of disposal can be selected. This concept of incremental sanitation requires municipal activity in sanitation programs to be spread over a longer time frame because the user has the option of whether and when to proceed to the next higher level of convenience.

Denver's Potable Reuse Project: Pathway to Public Acceptance

Abstract: The Denver Water Department has been supplying water to the Denver metropolitan area for more than half a century. The natural streams in the area contribute only about 123 X 106 m3 (100 000 acre-ft) per year to supply the area. This water is insufficient to meet the current and growing needs of the Denver metropolitan area. Over the years, therefore, the department has developed extensive transmountain diversions to augment the indigenous supply and is now delivering over 308 X 106 m3 (250 000 acre-ft) of water each year. Looking ahead to the turn of this century, Denver will surely see the day when the unconventional alternative of direct potable reuse must be part of the overall water supply program to meet the area's increasing needs.

Household Water Use: Technological Shifts and Conservation Implications

Abstract: A study was undertaken to determine the effect of water intensive appliances or activities on household water consumption. Activities included in the study were use of the washing machine, dishwasher, swimming pool, and lawn watering. In the majority of cases these activities increased per capita consumption and were statistically significant. Households included in the study were not familiar with water saving devices available in the retail market. Even if tehse appliances were purchased, private economic benefits to the household would be low due to the inexpensive water charges levied. However, aggregate community benefits could be large if new well drilling cost or increase in storage facilities could be avoided. In order to avoid these increased costs, regulation or subsidy programs may be the most efficient policy alternatives available to the communities. Subsidies and regulation could potentially decrease water use and offer alternatives to increasing the water supply.

The water supply system at Tuşpa (Urartu)

Abstract: The principal purpose of a controlled water supply is to meet the demand for water in a certain region from locally available resources. However, water supply and demand are subject to different variations in the hydrological cycle, and these do not coincide in space or time. The quantity of water available is subject to considerable seasonal fluctuations and, in order to bring it into line with the personal and industrial needs of a society, it is necessary to make provisions for controlled hydraulic systems. Seasonal problems can be solved by constructing natural or artificial reservoirs to store water in times of flooding in order to make it available during dry periods. The problem of distance between existing water resources and actual water consumption can be overcome by means of natural or artificial channelling. The 'National Water Carrier' in Israel and the American 'California Water Project' are good examples of modern large-scale and long-term water supply systems, which have been rightly recognized and have received world-wide praise as superb technical achieve

Institutional Analysis Criteria for Water Supply Planning

Abstract: This paper discusses the selection and use of criteria for an institutional analysis of municipal water supply conducted in anchorage, Alaska. Although not universally acepted or used. evaluation criteria for most technical fields have been established either formally or informally. Cost-benefit rtios, cost-effectiveness, and environmental impacts are examples of technical evaluation criteria that can be quantified relatively easily (although poorly in some cases). The field of institutional analysis has evaluative criteria that are much less readily defined than those of technical fields, in part because many of the criteria are not quantifiable and in part because the area of the study is new.

Trihalomethane Levels at Selected Water Utilities in Kentucky, U.S.A.

Abstract: For almost half a century, Americans have relied confidently upon their domestic water supply, assuming that drinking water was free of harmful contaminants. In November 1974, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) announced officially that trace quantities of 66 organic chemicals were identified in the New Orleans drinking water supply. Several of the compounds identified were suspected carcinogens. Partially in response to the events surrounding New Orleans, Congress passed legislation, Section 1442a-9 of the Safe Drinking Water Act, that directed EPA to conduct a comprehensive study of public water supplies and drinking water sources to determine the nature, extent, sources and means of control of contamination by chemicals or other substances suspected of being carcinogenic. In complying with this mandate by Congress, EPA initiated an extensive program to answer the questions raised by Congress concerning suspected carcinogens in drinking water.