Five studies tested two general hypotheses: Individuals differ in their use of emotion regulation strategies such as reappraisal and suppression, and these individual differences have implications for affect, well-being, and social relationships. Study 1 presents new measures of the habitual use of reappraisal and suppression. Study 2 examines convergent and discriminant validity. Study 3 shows that reappraisers experience and express greater positive emotion and lesser negative emotion, whereas suppressors experience and express lesser positive emotion, yet experience greater negative emotion. Study 4 indicates that using reappraisal is associated with better interpersonal functioning, whereas using suppression is associated with worse interpersonal functioning. Study 5 shows that using reappraisal is related positively to well-being, whereas using suppression is related negatively.

Individual differences in two emotion regulation processes: implications for affect, relationships, and well-being.

A role congruity theory of prejudice toward female leaders proposes that perceived incongruity between the female gender role and leadership roles leads to 2 forms of prejudice: (a) perceiving women less favorably than men as potential occupants of leadership roles and (b) evaluating behavior that fulfills the prescriptions of a leader role less favorably when it is enacted by a woman. One consequence is that attitudes are less positive toward female than male leaders and potential leaders. Other consequences are that it is more difficult for women to become leaders and to achieve success in leadership roles. Evidence from varied research paradigms substantiates that these consequences occur, especially in situations that heighten perceptions of incongruity between the female gender role and leadership roles.

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Role congruity theory of prejudice toward female leaders.

Emotion and Adaptation

Mind, Self and Society from the Standpoint of a Social Behaviorist

The topic of emotions in the workplace is beginning to garner closer attention by researchers and theorists. The study of emotional labor addresses the stress of managing emotions when the work role demands that certain expressions be shown to customers. However, there has been no overarching framework to guide this work, and the previous studies have often disagreed on the definition and operationalization of emotional labor. The purposes of this article are as follows: to review and compare previous perspectives of emotional labor, to provide a definition of emotional labor that integrates these perspectives, to discuss emotion regulation as a guiding theory for understanding the mechanisms of emotional labor, and to present a model of emotional labor that includes individual differences (such as emotional intelligence) and organizational factors (such as supervisor support).

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Emotion regulation in the workplace: a new way to conceptualize emotional labor.

Insights from appraisal theories of emotion are used to integrate elements of theories on collective action. Three experiments with disadvantaged groups systematically manipulated procedural fairness (Study 1), emotional social support (Study 2), and instrumental social support (Study 3) to examine their effects on collective action tendencies through group-based anger and group efficacy. Results of structural equation modeling showed that procedural fairness and emotional social support affected the group-based anger pathway (reflecting emotion-focused coping), whereas instrumental social support affected the group efficacy pathway (reflecting problem-focused coping), constituting 2 distinct pathways to collective action tendencies. Analyses of the means suggest that collective action tendencies become stronger the more fellow group members "put their money where their mouth is." The authors discuss how their dual pathway model integrates and extends elements of current approaches to collective action.

Put your money where your mouth is! : Explaining collective action tendencies through group-based anger and group efficacy

Review: The role of emotion in computer-mediated communication: A review

Part I. Cultural, Gender and Emotional Beliefs: 1. Thinking about gender, thinking about theory Stephanie A. Shields 2. The socialisation of gender differences in emotional expression Leslie R. Brody 3. Men's and women's lay theories of emotion Vanda L. Zammuner 4.The relationship between gender and emotions in different cultures Agneta H. Fischer and Anton S. R. Manstead Part II. Emotion Expression and Communication: 5. Gender differences in nonverbal communication of emotion Judy A. Hall, Jason D. Carter and Terrence G. Horgan 6. Gender and smiling: a meta-analysis Marianne LaFrance and Marvin Hecht 7. Sex differences in crying Ad Vingerhoets and Jan Scheirs 8. Masculine identity and restrictive emotionality Jeroen Jansz Part III. Distinct Emotions: 9. Women, men and positive emotions Michele G. Alexander and Wendy Wood 10. Gender and anger Ann Kring 11. Gender, sadness and depression Robyn Fivush and Janine P. Buckner 12. Engendering gender differences in shame and guilt Tamara J. Ferguson and Heidi L. Eyre 13. Sex differences in anxiety and depression Tracey E. Madden, Lisa Feldman Barrett and Paula R. Pietromonaco Part IV. Epilogue: Gender and emotion: notes from a grateful tourist Kay Deaux.

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Gender and emotion: Social psychological perspectives

This article reports 3 studies in which the authors examined (a) the distinctive characteristics of anger and contempt responses and (b) the interpersonal causes and effects of both emotions. In the 1st study, the authors examined the distinction between the 2 emotions; in the 2nd study, the authors tested whether contempt could be predicted from previous anger incidents with the same person; and in the 3rd study, the authors examined the effects of type of relationship on anger and contempt reactions. The results of the 3 studies show that anger and contempt often occur together but that there are clear distinctions between the 2 emotions: Anger is characterized more by short-term attack responses but long-term reconciliation, whereas contempt is characterized by rejection and social exclusion of the other person, both in the short-term and in the long-term. The authors also found that contempt may develop out of previously experienced anger and that a lack of intimacy with and perceived control over the behavior of the other person, as well as negative dispositional attributions about the other person, predicted the emergence of contempt.

/pdf/beat-them-or-ban-them-the-characteristics-and-social-14oxkkpy40.pdf

Beat them or ban them: the characteristics and social functions of anger and contempt.

In this article, the authors report a secondary analysis on a cross-cultural dataset on gender differences in 6 emotions, collected in 37 countries all over the world. The aim was to test the universality of the gender-specific pattern found in studies with Western respondents, namely that men report more powerful emotions (e.g., anger), whereas women report more powerless emotions (e.g., sadness, fear). The authors expected the strength of these gender differences to depend on women's status and roles in their respective countries, as operationalized by the Gender Empowerment Measure (GEM; United Nations Development Programme Human Development Report 2002). Overall, the gender-specific pattern of women reporting to experience and express more powerless emotions and men more powerful emotions was replicated, and only some interactions with the GEM were found.

Agneta H. Fischer

Papers

Put your money where your mouth is! : Explaining collective action tendencies through group-based anger and group efficacy

Review: The role of emotion in computer-mediated communication: A review

Gender and emotion: Social psychological perspectives

Beat them or ban them: the characteristics and social functions of anger and contempt.

Gender and culture differences in emotion