Following Langer (1992), this article reviews a series of experimental studiesthat demonstrate that individuals mindlessly apply social rules and expecta-tions to computers. The first set of studies illustrates how individuals overusehuman social categories, applying gender stereotypes to computers and ethnicallyidentifying with computer agents. The second set demonstrates that people exhibitoverlearned social behaviors such as politeness and reciprocity toward comput-ers.Inthethirdsetofstudies,prematurecognitivecommitmentsaredemonstrated:Aspecialisttelevisionsetisperceivedasprovidingbettercontentthanageneralisttelevision set. A final series of studies demonstrates the depth of social responseswith respect to computer “personality.” Alternative explanations for these find -ings, such as anthropomorphism and intentional social responses, cannot explainthe results. We conclude with an agenda for future research.Computer users approach the personal computer in many different ways.Experienced word processors move smoothly from keyboard to mouse to menu,mixing prose and commands to the computer automatically; the distinctionbetween the hand and the tool blurs (Heidegger, 1977; Winograd & Flores, 1987).Novices cautiously strike each key, fearing that one false move will initiate anuncontrollable series of unwanted events. Game players view computers as

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Machines and Mindlessness: Social Responses to Computers

“WHAT can men do, what do they do, and what do they want to do ?”—these are the uestions that Prof. Thorndike seeks to answer in a very comprehensive and elaborate treatise. His undertaking is inspired by the belief that man has the possibility of almost complete control of his fate if only he will be guided by science, and that his failures are attributable to ignorance or folly. The main approach is through biological psychology, but all the social sciences are appealed to and utilized in an effort to deal with the human problem as a whole. The relative immaturity of the sciences dealing with man is continually stressed, but it is claimed that they provide a body of facts and principles which are “far above zero knowledge”, and that even now they are capable of affording valuable guidance in the shaping of public policy. Human Nature and the Social Order By E. L. Thorndike. Pp. xx + 1020. (New York: The Macmillan Company, 1940.) 18s. net.

Human Nature and the Social Order

Sexual minorities are at increased risk for multiple mental health burdens compared with heterosexuals. The field has identified 2 distinct determinants of this risk, including group-specific minority stressors and general psychological processes that are common across sexual orientations. The goal of the present article is to develop a theoretical framework that integrates the important insights from these literatures. The framework postulates that (a) sexual minorities confront increased stress exposure resulting from stigma; (b) this stigma-related stress creates elevations in general emotion dysregulation, social/interpersonal problems, and cognitive processes conferring risk for psychopathology; and (c) these processes in turn mediate the relationship between stigma-related stress and psychopathology. It is argued that this framework can, theoretically, illuminate how stigma adversely affects mental health and, practically, inform clinical interventions. Evidence for the predictive validity of this framework is reviewed, with particular attention paid to illustrative examples from research on depression, anxiety, and alcohol-use disorders.

How does sexual minority stigma “get under the skin”? A psychological mediation framework.

A meta-analysis of 82 recidivism studies (1,620 findings from 29,450 sexual offenders) identified deviant sexual preferences and antisocial orientation as the major predictors of sexual recidivism for both adult and adolescent sexual offenders. Antisocial orientation was the major predictor of violent recidivism and general (any) recidivism. The review also identified some dynamic risk factors that have the potential of being useful treatment targets (e.g., sexual preoccupations, general self-regulation problems). Many of the variables commonly addressed in sex offender treatment programs (e.g., psychological distress, denial of sex crime, victim empathy, stated motivation for treatment) had little or no relationship with sexual or violent recidivism.

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The Characteristics of Persistent Sexual Offenders: A Meta-Analysis of Recidivism Studies.

In attempting to make sense of other people, perceivers regularly construct and use categorical representations to simplify and streamline the person perception process. Noting the importance of categorical thinking in everyday life, our emphasis in this chapter is on the cognitive dynamics of categorical social perception. In reviewing current research on this topic, three specific issues are addressed: (a) When are social categories activated by perceivers, (b) what are the typical consequences of category activation, and (c) can perceivers control the influence and expression of categorical thinking? Throughout the chapter, we consider how integrative models of cognitive functioning may inform our understanding of categorical social perception.

Social cognition: thinking categorically about others.

In study 1 (N = 257 undergraduates) the relations among self-concealment, attitudes toward seeking psychological help, and intentions to seek counseling were explored. Results revealed that even though self-concealment was associated with less favorable attitudes toward seeking help, it was also associated with greater intentions to seek counseling. In Study 2, high and low self-concealers (N = 83) read a description of counseling that either (a) indicated that counseling involves revealing highly personal information or (b) made no mention of such disclosure. Results revealed that in the former condition, high self-concealers were less favorable toward counseling than were low self-concealers, whereas in the latter condition, there was no significant difference between the two groups. Implications of these findings for future research are discussed

Self-concealment and attitudes toward counseling in university students.

Consequences of revealing personal secrets.

Whether the rebound effect of thought suppression would occur with self-generated intrusive thoughts and whether the rebound would be followed by negative metacognitions concerning one's ability to control one's thoughts were explored. In Experiment 1, Ss (N=104) were asked to (a) suppress and then express or (b) express and then suppress their own intrusive thoughts during written stream-of-consciousness tasks. Results revealed the reverse of the rebound effect: Initial suppression was followed by diminished expression of the intrusive thoughts. Experiment 2 (N=116) replicated the original rebound effect (Wegner, 1989) and showed that the rebound was followed by increased reports of feeling out of control of one's thoughts

Effects of suppression of personal intrusive thoughts.

Preface. 1. Nature of Secrecy. 2. Individual Differences in Secret Keeping. 3. Explaining Why Secrecy is Linked to Problems. 4. Health Benefits of Revealing. 5. What is it About Revealing Secrets that is Beneficial? 6. Secrecy and Openness in Psychotherapy. 7. Explaining Why Openness May Not be Therapeutic: A Self-Presentational View of Psychotherapy. 8. Dilemmas to Revealing Secrets and the Role of the Confidant. 9. When to Reveal Personal Secrets in a Particular Relationship. Index.

The Psychology of Secrets

This research investigated the relation between clients' self-reported secret keeping in therapy and symptomatology Therapy outpatients at a community hospital (N 42) completed surveys that asked them to list relevant secrets that they were keeping from their therapists and their reasons for doing so Over 40% of the clients reported keeping a relevant secret in therapy, and the most frequently listed reason was that they were afraid to express feelings After adjusting for clients' initial symptomatology, tendency to keep secrets in general, and social desirability scores, the analyses showed that keeping secrets in therapy was a significant predictor of having fewer symptoms The results support a self-presentational perspective on secret keeping in counseling and suggest that clients may benefit from hiding some undesirable aspects of themselves from their therapists

Anita E. Kelly

Papers

Self-concealment and attitudes toward counseling in university students.

Consequences of revealing personal secrets.

Effects of suppression of personal intrusive thoughts.

The Psychology of Secrets

Clients' secret keeping in outpatient therapy.