Dear Editor, COVID-19, caused by the SARS-CoV-2 virus, has now spread worldwide with catastrophic human and economic impacts and currently has infected over 10 million people and killed over 500,000. In an effort to mitigate disease symptoms and impede viral spread, efforts in vaccine development and drug discovery are being conducted at a rapid pace. Recently, we showed that the well-known anticoagulant heparin has exceptional binding affinity to the spike protein (S-protein) of SARS-CoV-2. The Sprotein of SARS-CoV-2 bound more tightly to immobilized heparin (KD= ~10 −11 M) than the S-proteins of either SARS-CoV (KD= ~10 −7 M) or MERS-CoV (KD= ~10 M). However, it is not known whether the tight binding of heparin to the SARS-CoV-2 S-protein translates into potent antiviral activity. In the current study, we evaluated the in vitro antiviral properties of heparin and other closely related polysaccharides to assess the relevance of heparin-related GAGs and other sulfated polysaccharides as part of the pharmacopeia of potential therapeutics that target SARS-CoV-2. Vero-CCL81, which expresses both ACE2 and TMPRSS2, were used for viral replication at high titer for use in antiviral assays. Heparin, heparan sulfates, other glycosaminoglycans (GAGs), and fucoidan and other highly sulfated polysaccharides were screened using surface plasmon resonance (SPR) to measure binding affinity to the SARSCoV-2 S-protein (Fig. 1a). Briefly, solution competition studies between surface immobilized heparin and other sulfated polysaccharides were evaluated by injecting SARS-CoV-2 S-protein (50 nM) alone or mixed with 1 μM of an indicated polysaccharide in SPR buffer at a flow rate of 30 μL/min. After each run, dissociation and regeneration were performed. For each set of competition experiments, a control experiment (S-protein without polysaccharide) was performed to ensure the surface was fully regenerated. Among the tested polysaccharides, RPI27 and RPI-28, complex sulfated polysaccharides (fucoidans) extracted from the seaweed Saccharina japonica, chemo-enzymatically synthesized trisulfated (TriS) heparin, and unfractionated USP-heparin itself were able to compete with heparin for S-protein binding. We selected these compounds along with a non-anticoagulant low molecular weight heparin (NACH) for further study (Fig. 1b). The other GAGs including heparan sulfate, the chondroitin sulfates, and keratan sulfate show no competitive binding when compared to the control. Standard assays were performed to quantify potential cytotoxicity and antiviral activity. Cytotoxicity determination of the polysaccharides was performed using Vero cells and the standard water-soluble tetrazolium salt-1 (WST-1) assay (Takara Bio Inc., Japan). None of the tested polysaccharides showed toxicity even at the highest concentrations tested. Vero cells were infected with SARS-CoV-2 at a multiplicity of infection (MOI) of 2.5 × 10 with varying dosages of polysaccharide to confirm antiviral activity. A focus reduction assay was performed 48 h post infection to determine efficacy. Antiviral activities correlated with the SPR results. The most potent compound tested, RPI-27, is a high molecular weight, branched polysaccharide related to the known compound fucoidan, and had an EC50 of 8.3 ± 4.6 μg/mL, which corresponds to ~83 nM (Fig. 1c, d and Supplementary Table S1). This is substantially more potent than

/pdf/sulfated-polysaccharides-effectively-inhibit-sars-cov-2-in-2tb0bb3rd1.pdf

Sulfated polysaccharides effectively inhibit SARS-CoV-2 in vitro

https://escholarship.org/content/qt5mz1s1pz/qt5mz1s1pz.pdf?t=p9sqjd

Escherichia coli as a host for metabolic engineering.

Severe acute respiratory syndrome-related coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) has caused a pandemic of historic proportions and continues to spread globally, with enormous consequences to human health. Currently there is no vaccine, effective therapeutic, or prophylactic. As with other betacoronaviruses, attachment and entry of SARS-CoV-2 are mediated by the spike glycoprotein (SGP). In addition to its well-documented interaction with its receptor, human angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (hACE2), SGP has been found to bind to glycosaminoglycans like heparan sulfate, which is found on the surface of virtually all mammalian cells. Here, we pseudotyped SARS-CoV-2 SGP on a third-generation lentiviral (pLV) vector and tested the impact of various sulfated polysaccharides on transduction efficiency in mammalian cells. The pLV vector pseudotyped SGP efficiently and produced high titers on HEK293T cells. Various sulfated polysaccharides potently neutralized pLV-S pseudotyped virus with clear structure-based differences in antiviral activity and affinity to SGP. Concentration-response curves showed that pLV-S particles were efficiently neutralized by a range of concentrations of unfractionated heparin (UFH), enoxaparin, 6-O-desulfated UFH, and 6-O-desulfated enoxaparin with 50% inhibitory concentrations (IC50s) of 5.99 µg/liter, 1.08 mg/liter, 1.77 µg/liter, and 5.86 mg/liter, respectively. In summary, several sulfated polysaccharides show potent anti-SARS-CoV-2 activity and can be developed for prophylactic as well as therapeutic purposes.IMPORTANCE The emergence of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus (SARS-CoV-2) in Wuhan, China, in late 2019 and its subsequent spread to the rest of the world has created a pandemic situation unprecedented in modern history. While ACE2 has been identified as the viral receptor, cellular polysaccharides have also been implicated in virus entry. The SARS-CoV-2 spike glycoprotein (SGP) binds to glycosaminoglycans like heparan sulfate, which is found on the surface of virtually all mammalian cells. Here, we report structure-based differences in antiviral activity and affinity to SGP for several sulfated polysaccharides, including both well-characterized FDA-approved drugs and novel marine sulfated polysaccharides, which can be developed for prophylactic as well as therapeutic purposes.

Effective Inhibition of SARS-CoV-2 Entry by Heparin and Enoxaparin Derivatives.

The translation of biological glycosylation in humans to the clinical applications involves systematic studies using homogeneous samples of oligosaccharides and glycoconjugates, which could be accessed by chemical, enzymatic or other biological methods. However, the structural complexity and wide-range variations of glycans and their conjugates represent a major challenge in the synthesis of this class of biomolecules. To help navigate within many methods of oligosaccharide synthesis, this Perspective offers a critical assessment of the most promising synthetic strategies with an eye on the therapeutically relevant targets.

Oligosaccharide Synthesis and Translational Innovation

Severe acute respiratory syndrome-related coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) has caused a pandemic of historic proportions and continues to spread globally, with enormous consequences to human health. Currently there is no vaccine, effective therapeutic or prophylactic. Like other betacoronaviruses, attachment and entry of SARS-CoV-2 is mediated by the spike glycoprotein (SGP). In addition to its well-documented interaction with its receptor, human angiotensin converting enzyme 2 (hACE2), SGP has been found to bind to glycosaminoglycans like heparan sulfate, which is found on the surface of virtually all mammalian cells. Here, we pseudotyped SARS-CoV-2 SGP on a third generation lentiviral (pLV) vector and tested the impact of various sulfated polysaccharides on transduction efficiency in mammalian cells. The pLV vector pseudotyped SGP efficiently and produced high titers on HEK293T cells. Various sulfated polysaccharides potently neutralized pLV-S pseudotyped virus with clear structure-based differences in anti-viral activity and affinity to SGP. Concentration-response curves showed that pLV-S particles were efficiently neutralized by a range of concentrations of unfractionated heparin (UFH), enoxaparin, 6-O-desulfated UFH and 6-O-desulfated enoxaparin with an IC50 of 5.99 μg/L, 1.08 mg/L, 1.77 μg/L, and 5.86 mg/L respectively. The low serum bioavailability of intranasally administered UFH, along with data suggesting that the nasal epithelium is a portal for initial infection and transmission, suggest that intranasal administration of UFH may be an effective and safe prophylactic treatment.

/pdf/effective-inhibition-of-sars-cov-2-entry-by-heparin-and-3g5wv53lar.pdf

Effective Inhibition of SARS-CoV-2 Entry by Heparin and Enoxaparin Derivatives

The road to animal-free glycosaminoglycan production: current efforts and bottlenecks.

Heparin is an anionic polysaccharide that is widely used as a clinical anticoagulant. This glycosaminoglycan is prepared from animal tissues in metric ton quantities. Animal-sourced heparin is also widely used in the preparation of low molecular weight heparins that are gaining in popularity as a result of their improved pharmacological properties. The recent contamination of pharmaceutical heparin together with concerns about increasing demand for this life saving drug and the fragility of the heparin supply chain has led the scientific community to consider other potential sources for heparin. This review examines progress toward the preparation of engineered heparins through chemical synthesis, chemoenzymatic synthesis, and metabolic engineering.

Engineered heparins as new anticoagulant drugs.

Heparin is a highly sulfated, complex polysaccharide and widely used anticoagulant pharmaceutical. In this work, we chemoenzymatically synthesized perdeuteroheparin from biosynthetically enriched heparosan precursor obtained from microbial culture in deuterated medium. Chemical de-N-acetylation, chemical N-sulfation, enzymatic epimerization, and enzymatic sulfation with recombinant heparin biosynthetic enzymes afforded perdeuteroheparin comparable to pharmaceutical heparin. A series of applications for heavy heparin and its heavy biosynthetic intermediates are demonstrated, including generation of stable isotope labeled disaccharide standards, development of a non-radioactive NMR assay for glucuronosyl-C5-epimerase, and background-free quantification of in vivo half-life following administration to rabbits. We anticipate that this approach can be extended to produce other isotope-enriched glycosaminoglycans.

Heavy Heparin: A Stable Isotope-Enriched, Chemoenzymatically-Synthesized, Poly-Component Drug.

Sulfated glycosaminoglycans (GAGs) are a class of important biologics that are currently manufactured by extraction from animal tissues. Although such methods are unsustainable and prone to contamination, animal-free production methods have not emerged as competitive alternatives due to complexities in scale-up, requirement for multiple stages and cost of co-factors and purification. Here, we demonstrate the development of single microbial cell factories capable of complete, one-step biosynthesis of chondroitin sulfate (CS), a type of GAG. We engineer E. coli to produce all three required components for CS production–chondroitin, sulfate donor and sulfotransferase. In this way, we achieve intracellular CS production of ~27 μg/g dry-cell-weight with about 96% of the disaccharides sulfated. We further explore four different factors that can affect the sulfation levels of this microbial product. Overall, this is a demonstration of simple, one-step microbial production of a sulfated GAG and marks an important step in the animal-free production of these molecules. Chondroitin sulfate (CS) is a type of sulfated glycosaminoglycan that is manufactured by extraction from animal tissues for the treatment of osteoarthritis and in drug delivery applications. Here, the authors report the development of single microbial cell factories capable of compete, one-step biosynthesis of animal-free CS production in E. coli.

Complete biosynthesis of a sulfated chondroitin in Escherichia coli.

Chondroitin sulfates (CSs) are linear glycosaminoglycans that have important applications in the medical and food industries. Engineering bacteria for the microbial production of CS will facilitate a one-step, scalable production with good control over sulfation levels and positions in contrast to extraction from animal sources. To achieve this goal, Escherichia coli (E. coli) is engineered in this study using traditional metabolic engineering approaches to accumulate 3'-phosphoadenosine-5'-phosphosulfate (PAPS), the universal sulfate donor. PAPS is one of the least-explored components required for the biosynthesis of CS. The resulting engineered E. coli strain shows an ≈1000-fold increase in intracellular PAPS concentrations. This study also reports, for the first time, in vitro biotransformation of CS using PAPS, chondroitin, and chondroitin-4-sulfotransferase (C4ST), all synthesized from different engineered E. coli strains. A 10.4-fold increase is observed in the amount of CS produced by biotransformation by employing PAPS from the engineered PAPS-accumulating strain. The data from the biotransformation experiments also help evaluate the reaction components that need improved production to achieve a one-step microbial synthesis of CS. This will provide a new platform to produce CS.

Increased 3'-Phosphoadenosine-5'-phosphosulfate Levels in Engineered Escherichia coli Cell Lysate Facilitate the In Vitro Synthesis of Chondroitin Sulfate A.

Asher Williams

Papers

The road to animal-free glycosaminoglycan production: current efforts and bottlenecks.

Engineered heparins as new anticoagulant drugs.

Heavy Heparin: A Stable Isotope-Enriched, Chemoenzymatically-Synthesized, Poly-Component Drug.

Complete biosynthesis of a sulfated chondroitin in Escherichia coli.

Increased 3'-Phosphoadenosine-5'-phosphosulfate Levels in Engineered Escherichia coli Cell Lysate Facilitate the In Vitro Synthesis of Chondroitin Sulfate A.