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Using Multivariate Statistics

Emotion-regulation strategies across psychopathology: A meta-analytic review.

Attentional control theory is an approach to anxiety and cognition representing a major development of Eysenck and Calvo's (1992) processing efficiency theory. It is assumed that anxiety impairs efficient functioning of the goal-directed attentional system and increases the extent to which processing is influenced by the stimulus-driven attentional system. In addition to decreasing attentional control, anxiety increases attention to threat-related stimuli. Adverse effects of anxiety on processing efficiency depend on two central executive functions involving attentional control: inhibition and shifting. However, anxiety may not impair performance effectiveness (quality of performance) when it leads to the use of compensatory strategies (e.g., enhanced effort; increased use of processing resources). Directions for future research are discussed.

Anxiety and cognitive performance: Attentional control theory.

This meta-analysis of 172 studies (N = 2,263 anxious, N = 1,768 nonanxious) examined the boundary conditions of threat-related attentional biases in anxiety. Overall, the results show that the bias is reliably demonstrated with different experimental paradigms and under a variety of experimental conditions, but that it is only an effect size of d = 0.45. Although processes requiring conscious perception of threat contribute to the bias, a significant bias is also observed with stimuli outside awareness. The bias is of comparable magnitude across different types of anxious populations (individuals with different clinical disorders, high-anxious nonclinical individuals, anxious children and adults) and is not observed in nonanxious individuals. Empirical and clinical implications as well as future directions for research are discussed.

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Threat-related attentional bias in anxious and nonanxious individuals: a meta-analytic study.

A review of recent research on cognitive processing indicates that biases in attention, memory, and interpretation, as well as repetitive negative thoughts, are common across emotional disorders, although they vary in form according to type of disorder. Current cognitive models emphasize specific forms of biased processing, such as variations in the focus of attention or habitual interpretative styles that contribute to the risk of developing particular disorders. As well as predicting risk of emotional disorders, new studies haveprovided evidence of a causal relationship between processing bias and vulnerability. Beyond merely demonstrating the existence of biased processing, research is thus beginning to explore the cognitive causes of emotional vulnerability, and their modification.

Cognitive Vulnerability to Emotional Disorders

Anxiety states are associated with increasedattention to threat and a greater likelihood of reachinga pessimistic interpretation of ambiguous events.Existing models of this selective processing possess features that are difficult to reconcile withcurrent experimental findings. In this paper we build onthese earlier ideas to develop a new model,incorporating adaptations that allow it to accountbetter for the accumulating data. Essential featuresare that attributes or meanings of stimuli are processedin parallel and compete for attentional resources. Inputfrom a threat evaluation system (TES) strengthens activation of threat-related attributes, to anextent influenced by anxiety level. Such activation canbe countered, within limits, by voluntary task-relatedeffort, and the balance between these opposing influences determines the extent of anyattentional or interpretative bias seen. Such a model isplausible from an evolutionary perspective and isconsistent with neurological evidence concerning theacquisition and extinction of aversiveconditioning.

A Cognitive Model of Selective Processing in Anxiety

Five experiments are reported showing that the interpretation of personally relevant emotional information can be modified by systematic exposure to congruent exemplars. Participants were induced to interpret ambiguous information in a relatively threatening or a benign way. Comparison with a baseline condition suggested that negative and positive induction had similar but opposing effects. Induction of an interpretative bias did not require active generation of personally relevant meanings, but such active processing was necessary before state anxiety changed in parallel with the induced interpretative bias. These findings provide evidence consistent with a causal link between the deployment of interpretative bias and anxiety and reveal something of the processes underlying this association.

Induced emotional interpretation bias and anxiety.

Positive Interpretation Training: Effects of Mental Imagery Versus Verbal Training on Positive Mood

Comparisons between rumination and worry in a non-clinical population

Aims Attentional bias for drug-related cues has been associated with drug maintenance and relapse. We investigated whether attentional bias for smoking-related stimuli could be altered using a modified visual probe task in cigarette smokers. We also sought to determine whether changes in attentional bias were associated with changes in subsequent craving and cue reactivity.

Participants  Male and female (n = 54) current smokers (≥5 cigarettes per day), aged between 18 and 40 years, were recruited from staff and students of the University of Bristol, and from the general population.

Design  Participants attended a single test session and completed an attentional training procedure in which they were either trained to attend to smoking-related pictorial stimuli (attend group) or to neutral pictorial stimuli (avoid group). Group allocation was randomized.

Measurements  Following attentional training, participants underwent a smoking cue exposure procedure in which they were exposed to smoking-related stimuli. Subjective measures of mood and craving were taken at baseline and before and after cue exposure. Participants then smoked a cigarette and smoking topography was measured.

Findings  Attentional training increased attentional bias among participants in the attend group, and decreased attentional bias among those in the avoid group. There were also differences between the attend and avoid groups in post-training changes in craving during exposure to in vivo smoking cues, reflecting greater increases in craving in the attend group, although these effects were observed in males only.

Conclusions  These data are the first to show alterations in attentional bias for smoking-related stimuli following a modified visual probe training procedure. Furthermore, post-training group differences in subjective craving suggest potential clinical utility of training procedures, although these effects may operate only in males. Future research should investigate whether multiple training sessions enhance post-training reductions in craving and cue reactivity, and the longer-term persistence of training effects.

Bundy Mackintosh

Papers

A Cognitive Model of Selective Processing in Anxiety

Induced emotional interpretation bias and anxiety.

Positive Interpretation Training: Effects of Mental Imagery Versus Verbal Training on Positive Mood

Comparisons between rumination and worry in a non-clinical population

Attentional bias training and cue reactivity in cigarette smokers.