A fundamental aim in the field of catalysis is the development of new modes of small molecule activation. One approach toward the catalytic activation of organic molecules that has received much attention recently is visible light photoredox catalysis. In a general sense, this approach relies on the ability of metal complexes and organic dyes to engage in single-electron-transfer (SET) processes with organic substrates upon photoexcitation with visible light.

Many of the most commonly employed visible light photocatalysts are polypyridyl complexes of ruthenium and iridium, and are typified by the complex tris(2,2′-bipyridine) ruthenium(II), or Ru(bpy)32+ (Figure 1). These complexes absorb light in the visible region of the electromagnetic spectrum to give stable, long-lived photoexcited states.1,2 The lifetime of the excited species is sufficiently long (1100 ns for Ru(bpy)32+) that it may engage in bimolecular electron-transfer reactions in competition with deactivation pathways.3 Although these species are poor single-electron oxidants and reductants in the ground state, excitation of an electron affords excited states that are very potent single-electron-transfer reagents. Importantly, the conversion of these bench stable, benign catalysts to redox-active species upon irradiation with simple household lightbulbs represents a remarkably chemoselective trigger to induce unique and valuable catalytic processes.






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Figure 1


Ruthenium polypyridyl complexes: versatile visible light photocatalysts.

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Visible Light Photoredox Catalysis with Transition Metal Complexes: Applications in Organic Synthesis

In this review, we highlight the use of organic photoredox catalysts in a myriad of synthetic transformations with a range of applications. This overview is arranged by catalyst class where the photophysics and electrochemical characteristics of each is discussed to underscore the differences and advantages to each type of single electron redox agent. We highlight both net reductive and oxidative as well as redox neutral transformations that can be accomplished using purely organic photoredox-active catalysts. An overview of the basic photophysics and electron transfer theory is presented in order to provide a comprehensive guide for employing this class of catalysts in photoredox manifolds.

Organic Photoredox Catalysis

Background Interest in photochemical synthesis has been motivated in part by the realization that sunlight is effectively an inexhaustible energy source.Chemists have also long recognized distinctive patterns of reactivity that are uniquely accessible via photochemical activation. However, most simple organic molecules absorb only ultraviolet (UV) light and cannot be activated by the visible wavelengths that comprise most of the solar energy that reaches Earth’s surface. Consequently, organic photochemistry has generally required the use of UV light sources. Visible light photocatalysis. ( A ) Transition metal photocatalysts, such as Ru(bpy) 3 2+ , readily absorb visible light to access reactive excited states. ( B ) Photoexcited Ru*(bpy) 3 2+ can act as an electron shuttle, interacting with sacrificial electron donors D (path i) or acceptors A (path ii) to yield either a strongly reducing or oxidizing catalyst toward organic substrates S. Ru*(bpy) 3 2+ can also directly transfer energy to an organic substrate to yield electronically excited species (path iii). bpy, 2,29-bipyridine; MLCT, metal-to-ligand charge transfer. Advances Over the past several years, there has been a resurgence of interest in synthetic photochemistry, based on the recognition that the transition metal chromophores that have been so productively exploited in the design of technologies for solar energy conversion can also convert visible light energy into useful chemical potential for synthetic purposes. Visible light enables productive photoreactions of compounds possessing weak bonds that are sensitive toward UV photodegradation. Furthermore, visible light photoreactions can be conducted by using essentially any source of white light, including sunlight, which obviates the need for specialized UV photoreactors. This feature has expanded the accessibility of photochemical reactions to a broader range of synthetic organic chemists. A variety of reaction types have now been shown to be amenable to visible light photocatalysis via photoinduced electron transfer to or from the transition metal chromophore, as well as energy-transfer processes. The predictable reactivity of the intermediates generated and the tolerance of the reaction conditions to a wide range of functional groups have enabled the application of these reactions to the synthesis of increasingly complex target molecules. Outlook This general strategy for the use of visible light in organic synthesis is already being adopted by a growing community of synthetic chemists. Much of the current research in this emerging area is geared toward the discovery of photochemical solutions for increasingly ambitious synthetic goals. Visible light photocatalysis is also attracting the attention of researchers in chemical biology, materials science, and drug discovery, who recognize that these reactions offer opportunities for innovation in areas beyond traditional organic synthesis. The long-term goals of this emerging area are to continue to improve efficiency and synthetic utility and to realize the long-standing goal of performing chemical synthesis using the sun.

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Solar Synthesis: Prospects in Visible Light Photocatalysis

In recent years, photoredox catalysis has come to the forefront in organic chemistry as a powerful strategy for the activation of small molecules. In a general sense, these approaches rely on the ability of metal complexes and organic dyes to convert visible light into chemical energy by engaging in single-electron transfer with organic substrates, thereby generating reactive intermediates. In this Perspective, we highlight the unique ability of photoredox catalysis to expedite the development of completely new reaction mechanisms, with particular emphasis placed on multicatalytic strategies that enable the construction of challenging carbon–carbon and carbon–heteroatom bonds.

http://pubs.acs.org/doi/pdf/10.1021/acs.joc.6b01449

Photoredox Catalysis in Organic Chemistry

The interaction between an electronically excited photocatalyst and an organic molecule can result in the genertion of a diverse array of reactive intermediates that can be manipulated in a variety of ways to result in synthetically useful bond constructions. This Review summarizes dual-catalyst strategies that have been applied to synthetic photochemistry. Mechanistically distinct modes of photocatalysis are discussed, including photoinduced electron transfer, hydrogen atom transfer, and energy transfer. We focus upon the cooperative interactions of photocatalysts with redox mediators, Lewis and Bronsted acids, organocatalysts, enzymes, and transition metal complexes.

http://pubs.acs.org/doi/pdf/10.1021/acs.chemrev.6b00018

Dual Catalysis Strategies in Photochemical Synthesis

Herein, the development of visible light-mediated atom transfer radical addition (ATRA) of haloalkanes onto alkenes and alkynes using the reductive and oxidative quenching of [Ir{dF(CF3)ppy}2(dtbbpy)]PF6 and [Ru(bpy)3]Cl2 is presented. Initial investigations indicated that the oxidative quenching of photocatalysts could effectively be utilized for ATRA, and since that report, the protocol has been expanded by broadening the scope of the reaction in terms of the photocatalysts, substrates, and solvents. In addition, further modifications of the reaction conditions allowed for the efficient ATRA of perfluoroalkyl iodides onto alkenes and alkynes utilizing the reductive quenching cycle of [Ru(bpy)3]Cl2 with sodium ascorbate as the sacrificial electron donor. These results signify the complementary nature of the oxidative and reductive quenching pathways of photocatalysts and the ability to predictably direct reaction outcome through modification of the reaction conditions.

Visible light-mediated atom transfer radical addition via oxidative and reductive quenching of photocatalysts.

The enantioselective oxidative C–H functionalization of tetrahydroisoquinoline derivatives is achieved through the merger of photoredox and asymmetric anion-binding catalysis. This combination of two distinct catalysis concepts introduces a potentially general approach to asymmetric transformations in oxidative photocatalysis.

/pdf/photoredox-activation-and-anion-binding-catalysis-in-the-4v8u1739f4.pdf

Photoredox activation and anion binding catalysis in the dual catalytic enantioselective synthesis of β-amino esters

Photocatalytic decarboxylative reduction of carboxylic acids and its application in asymmetric synthesis.

Simple and abundant carboxylic acids have been used as acyl radical precursor by means of visible-light photoredox catalysis. By the transient generation of a reactive anhydride intermediate, this redox-neutral approach offers a mild and rapid entry to high-value heterocyclic compounds without the need of UV irradiation, high temperature, high CO pressure, tin reagents, or peroxides.

https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1002/anie.201506432

Acyl Radicals from Aromatic Carboxylic Acids by Means of Visible-Light Photoredox Catalysis

Over the past decade, considerable progress on iron-catalyzed C–C bond-forming cross-coupling reactions has been made, leading to the successful development of several new catalytic systems. This perspective presents the proposed mechanistic pathways of iron-mediated cross-coupling reactions of organohalides and Grignard reagents and discusses the evidence documented in the literature that distinguishes whether such pathways proceed via single- or double-electron processes. When cross-coupling reactions are conducted in the presence of ligands, there is still much discussion in the literature as to whether the lowest iron oxidation state responsible for catalytic activity is Fe(I) or Fe(II). However, when ligand-free conditions are employed, it has been shown that iron reaches an Fe(I) oxidation state, allowing an Fe(I)/Fe(III) catalytic cycle. Moreover, for cross-couplings using alkyl halide electrophiles, evidence suggests that the reaction proceeds through single-electron steps, with the generation of ...

Carl-Johan Wallentin

Papers

Visible light-mediated atom transfer radical addition via oxidative and reductive quenching of photocatalysts.

Photoredox activation and anion binding catalysis in the dual catalytic enantioselective synthesis of β-amino esters

Photocatalytic decarboxylative reduction of carboxylic acids and its application in asymmetric synthesis.

Acyl Radicals from Aromatic Carboxylic Acids by Means of Visible-Light Photoredox Catalysis

Active Species and Mechanistic Pathways in Iron-Catalyzed C–C Bond-Forming Cross-Coupling Reactions