Nanocrystals (NCs) discussed in this Review are tiny crystals of metals, semiconductors, and magnetic material consisting of hundreds to a few thousand atoms each. Their size ranges from 2-3 to about 20 nm. What is special about this size regime that placed NCs among the hottest research topics of the last decades? The quantum mechanical coupling * To whom correspondence should be addressed. E-mail: dvtalapin@uchicago.edu. † The University of Chicago. ‡ Argonne National Lab. Chem. Rev. 2010, 110, 389–458 389

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Prospects of Colloidal Nanocrystals for Electronic and Optoelectronic Applications

Tandem solar cells, in which two solar cells with different absorption characteristics are linked to use a wider range of the solar spectrum, were fabricated with each layer processed from solution with the use of bulk heterojunction materials comprising semiconducting polymers and fullerene derivatives. A transparent titanium oxide (TiO x ) layer separates and connects the front cell and the back cell. The TiO x layer serves as an electron transport and collecting layer for the first cell and as a stable foundation that enables the fabrication of the second cell to complete the tandem cell architecture. We use an inverted structure with the low band-gap polymer-fullerene composite as the charge-separating layer in the front cell and the high band-gap polymer composite as that in the back cell. Power-conversion efficiencies of more than 6% were achieved at illuminations of 200 milliwatts per square centimeter.

http://science.sciencemag.org/content/sci/317/5835/222.full.pdf

Efficient tandem polymer solar cells fabricated by all-solution processing.

Consolidated tables showing an extensive listing of the highest independently confirmed efficiencies for solar cells and modules are presented. Guidelines for inclusion of results into these tables are outlined and new entries since July 2014 are reviewed. URI: http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/pip.2573/pdf [1] Authors: GREEN Martin A. EMERY Keith HISHIKAWA Y. WARTA W. DUNLOP Ewan Publication Year: 2015 Type: Articles in Journals

Solar Cell Efficiency Tables (Version 45)

On the temperature dependence of photovoltaic module electrical performance: a review of efficiency/ power correlations

Organometal halide perovskite solar cells have evolved in an exponential manner in the two key areas of efficiency and stability. The power conversion efficiency (PCE) reached 20.1% late last year. The key disquiet was stability, which has been limiting practical application, but now the state of the art is promising, being measured in thousands of hours. These improvements have been achieved through the application of different materials, interfaces and device architecture optimizations, especially after the investigation of hole conductor free mesoporous devices incorporating carbon electrodes, which promise stable, low cost and easy device fabrication methods. However, this work is still far from complete. There are various issues associated with the degradation of Omh-perovskite, and the interface and device instability which must be addressed to achieve good reproducibility and long lifetimes for Omh-PSCs with high conversion efficiencies. A comprehensive understanding of these issues is required to achieve breakthroughs in stability and practical outdoor applications of Omh-PSCs. For successful small and large scale applications, besides the improvement of the PCE, the stability of Omh-PSCs has to be improved. The causes of failure and associated mechanisms of device degradation, followed by the origins of degradation, approaches to improve stability, and methods and protocols are discussed in detail and form the main focus of this review article.

Organometal halide perovskite solar cells: degradation and stability

Degradation leading to failure in photovoltaic modules follows a progression that is dependent on multiple factors, some of which interact causing degradation that is difficult to simulate in the lab. This paper defines observed degradation in field-aged modules, including degradation of packaging materials, adhesional loss, degradation of interconnects, degradation due to moisture intrusion, and semiconductor device degradation. Additionally, this paper suggests that the onset and progression of degradation need to be studied to gain a more comprehensive understanding of module degradation rates and module failures.

Commonly observed degradation in field-aged photovoltaic modules

We review published literature from 1975 to the present for accelerated stress testing of flat-plate terrestrial photovoltaic (PV) modules. An important facet of this subject is the standard module test sequences that have been adopted by national and international standards organizations, especially those of the International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC). The intent and history of these qualification tests, provided in this review, shows that standard module qualification test results cannot be used to obtain or infer a product lifetime. Closely related subjects also discussed include: other limitations of qualification testing, definitions of module lifetime, module product certification, and accelerated life testing. Copyright © 2008 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

http://tu-freiberg.de/sites/default/files/media/institut-fuer-angewandte-physik-7681/scripts/osterwald2008.pdf

History of accelerated and qualification testing of terrestrial photovoltaic modules: A literature review

We present an analysis of the results of a solar weathering program that found a linear relationship between maximum power degradation and the total UV exposure dose for four different types of commercial crystalline Si modules. The average degradation rate for the four modules types was 0.71 % per year. The analysis showed that losses of short-circuit current were responsible for the maximum power degradation. Judging by the appearance of the nondegraded control modules, it is very doubtful that the short-circuit current losses were caused by encapsulation browning or obscuration. When we compared the quantum efficiency of a single cell in a degraded module to one from an unexposed control module, it appears that most of the degradation has occurred in the 800-1100 nm wavelength region, and not the short wavelength region.

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Degradation analysis of weathered crystalline-silicon PV modules

Electrochemical corrosion of SnO2:F transparent conducting layers in thin-film photovoltaic modules

The emission of light from each junction in a series-connected multijunction solar cell both complicates and elucidates the understanding of its performance under arbitrary conditions. Bringing together many recent advances in this understanding, we present a general 1-D model to describe luminescent coupling that arises from both voltage-driven electroluminescence and voltage-independent photoluminescence in nonideal junctions that include effects such as Sah–Noyce–Shockley (SNS) recombination with n  ≠ 2, Auger recombination, shunt resistance, reverse-bias breakdown, series resistance, and significant dark area losses. The individual junction voltages and currents are experimentally determined from measured optical and electrical inputs and outputs of the device within the context of the model to fit parameters that describe the devices performance under arbitrary input conditions. Techniques to experimentally fit the model are demonstrated for a four-junction inverted metamorphic solar cell, and the predictions of the model are compared with concentrator flash measurements.

/pdf/generalized-optoelectronic-model-of-series-connected-18nkmm67xn.pdf

Carl R. Osterwald

Papers

Commonly observed degradation in field-aged photovoltaic modules

History of accelerated and qualification testing of terrestrial photovoltaic modules: A literature review

Degradation analysis of weathered crystalline-silicon PV modules

Electrochemical corrosion of SnO2:F transparent conducting layers in thin-film photovoltaic modules

Generalized Optoelectronic Model of Series-Connected Multijunction Solar Cells