This paper reviews water electrolysis technologies for hydrogen production and also surveys the state of the art of water electrolysis integration with renewable energies. First, attention is paid to the thermodynamic and electrochemical processes to better understand how electrolysis cells work and how they can be combined to build big electrolysis modules. The electrolysis process and the characteristics, advantages, drawbacks, and challenges of the three main existing electrolysis technologies, namely alkaline, polymer electrolyte membrane, and solid oxide electrolyte, are then discussed. Current manufacturers and the main features of commercially available electrolyzers are extensively reviewed. Finally, the possible configurations allowing the integration of water electrolysis units with renewable energy sources in both autonomous and grid-connected systems are presented and some relevant demonstration projects are commented.

Hydrogen Production From Water Electrolysis: Current Status and Future Trends

Hydrogen from renewable electricity: An international review of power-to-gas pilot plants for stationary applications

PEM electrolysis for production of hydrogen from renewable energy sources

Hydrogen production, storage, transportation and key challenges with applications: A review

This paper proposes an AC-linked hybrid wind/photovoltaic (PV)/fuel cell (FC) alternative energy system for stand-alone applications. Wind and PV are the primary power sources of the system, and an FC-electrolyzer combination is used as a backup and a long-term storage system. An overall power management strategy is designed for the proposed system to manage power flows among the different energy sources and the storage unit in the system. A simulation model for the hybrid energy system has been developed using MATLAB/Simulink. The system performance under different scenarios has been verified by carrying out simulation studies using a practical load demand profile and real weather data.

Power Management of a Stand-Alone Wind/Photovoltaic/Fuel Cell Energy System

Operating experience with a photovoltaic-hydrogen energy system

In 1990 the Schatz Energy Research Center (SERC) installed a PV array comprised of 192 ARCO M-75 modules. Prior to installation, Zoellick carefully measured module performance and reported average peak power at normal operating cell temperature (NOCT) to be 39.88 W, which was 14.1% lower than the 46.4 W nameplate rating. For the past 11 years the array has been exposed to and employed in a cool, marine environment. Of the original 192 modules, 191 were tested in order to re-evaluate their performance. This paper describes the equipment, conditions, and procedure used in retesting the modules, and reports module performance results. Notable results are that average module short circuit current and maximum power production at NOCT have decreased by 6.38% and 4.39%, respectively.

Comparison of PV Module Performance Before and After 11, 20, and 25.5 Years of Field Exposure

Effects of mismatch losses in photovoltaic arrays

We compare different cogeneration system scenarios for efficient energy production from bagasse fuel in an Indonesian sugar and ethanol factory. These scenarios include the use of condensing-extraction steam turbines, variable speed electric drives for process equipment, measures to reduce low pressure steam demand for process needs, and two advanced cogeneration systems. One advanced system includes an 80 bar high pressure direct combustion steam Rankine cycle (advanced SRC), while the other uses a biomass integrated gasifier combined cycle (BIGCC); both utilize fuel dryers. Using steady-state thermodynamic models, we estimate that the net electricity generation potentials of the BIGCC and advanced SRC systems are approximately seven and five times the potential of the existing factory, respectively. The maximum net electricity generation potentials for the respective systems are 170 kWh/tc (BIGCC) and 140 kWh/tc (advanced SRC). However, the BIGCC system needs a bagasse feed rate that is 50 percent higher than the advanced SRC system to satisfy the factory low pressure steam demand for sugar and ethanol processing, which may affect its ability to provide steam and electricity during the off-season. For the Indonesian sugar factory, the annual revenue potential of the BIGCC system is US$14 million per year, approximately 50 percent higher than that of the advanced SRC system (electricity sale rate: US$45/MsWh; carbon credit price: US$13.60). BIGCC technology is still in an early stage of development and there are no commercial systems in sugar factories, so an advanced SRC system may be a more suitable option in the near future.

Thermal gasification or direct combustion? Comparison of advanced cogeneration systems in the sugarcane industry

A polymer electrolyte membrane fuel cell using hydrogen as the fuel and oxygen containing air as the oxidant. The fuel cell including a hydrogen side electrode; an air side electrode; an electrolyte positioned between the electrodes; a hydrogen diffuser/collector plate including hydrogen channels; and an air diffuser/collector plate including air channels. A method of operation of the fuel cell including introducing hydrogen into the hydrogen channels and introducing air into the air channels at a pressure of less than 5 psig and with a channel velocity of between about 0.15 and 7.0 meters/second.

Charles E. Chamberlin

Papers

Operating experience with a photovoltaic-hydrogen energy system

Comparison of PV Module Performance Before and After 11, 20, and 25.5 Years of Field Exposure

Effects of mismatch losses in photovoltaic arrays

Thermal gasification or direct combustion? Comparison of advanced cogeneration systems in the sugarcane industry

Proton exchange membrane fuel cell