Showing papers by "Chris Soulsby published in 2016"

Identifying run‐off contributions during melt‐induced run‐off events in a glacierized alpine catchment

Abstract: We analysed contributions to run-off using hourly stream water samples from seven individual melt-induced run-off events (plus one rainfall event) during 2011, 2012 and 2013 in two nested glacierized catchments in the Eastern Italian Alps. Electrical conductivity and stable isotopes of water were used for mixing analysis and two-component and three-component hydrograph separation. High-elevation snowmelt, glacier melt and autumn groundwater were identified as major end-members. Discharge and tracers in the stream followed the diurnal variations of air temperature but markedly reacted to rainfall inputs. Hysteresis patterns between discharge and electrical conductivity during the melt-induced run-off events revealed contrasting loop directions at the two monitored stream sections. Snowmelt contribution to run-off was highest in June and July (up to 33%), whereas the maximum contribution of glacier melt was reached in August (up to 65%). The maximum groundwater and rainfall contributions were 62% and 11%, respectively. Run-off events were generally characterized by decreasing snowmelt and increasing glacier melt fractions from the beginning to the end of the summer 2012, while run-off events in 2013 showed less variable snowmelt and lower glacier melt contributions than in 2012. The results provided essential insights into the complex dynamics of melt-induced run-off events and may be of further use in the context of water resource management in alpine catchments. Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Using high resolution tracer data to constrain water storage, flux and age estimates in a spatially distributed rainfall‐runoff model

Abstract: Acknowledgements The authors would like to thank Jonathan Dick, Josie Geris, Jason Lessels and Claire Tunaley for data collection and Audrey Innes for lab sample preparation. We also thank Christian Birkel for discussions about the model structure and comments on an earlier draft of the paper. Climatic data were provided by Iain Malcolm and Marine Scotland Fisheries at the Freshwater Lab, Pitlochry. Additional precipitation data were provided by the UK Meteorological Office and the British Atmospheric Data Centre (BADC). We thank the European Research Council ERC (project GA 335910 VEWA) for funding the VeWa project.

Linking high-frequency DOC dynamics to the age of connected water sources

Abstract: Acknowledgments The authors would like to thank our NRI colleagues for all their help with field and laboratory work, especially Audrey Innes, Jonathan Dick, and Ann Porter. We would like to also thank Iain Malcolm (Marine Scotland Science) for providing AWS data and the European Research Council ERC (project GA 335910 VEWA) for funding the VeWa project. Please contact the authors for access to the data used in this paper. We would also like to thank the Natural Environment Research Council NERC (project NE/K000268/1) for funding.

Spatial organization of groundwater dynamics and streamflow response from different hydropedological units in a montane catchment

Abstract: Groundwater dynamics play an important role in runoff generation and hydrologic connectivity between hillslopes and streams. We monitored a network of 14 shallow groundwater (GW) wells in a 3.2 km2 experimental catchment in the Scottish Highlands. Wells were placed in three contrasting landscape units with different hydropedological characteristics and different topographic positions relative to the stream network, encompassing a catena sequence from freely draining podzols on steeper hillslopes to increasingly thick peats (histosols) in the valley bottom riparian zone. GW dynamics were characterized by statistical analyses of water table fluctuations, estimation of variabilities in lag times and hysteresis response in relation to streamflow. The three landscape units had distinct storage–discharge relationships and threshold responses with a certain GW level above which lateral flow dominates. Steeper hillslopes with freely draining podzols were characterized by GW fluctuations of around 150 cm in the underlying drift. GW usually showed peak response up to several hours after stream flow. During persistent wet periods the water table remained in the soil profile for short spells and connected shallow flow paths in the near surface horizons to the lower hillslopes. In the peaty gleys in the lower foot slopes, GW was characterized by a water table generally within 20 cm of the soil surface, though at some locations this could fall to 50 cm in extreme dry periods. GW responses were usually a few hours prior to the stream responses. In riparian peats, the water table was also usually less than 20 cm deep and responded several hours before the stream. These riparian peat soils remain at, or very near saturation with near-continuous GW–surface water connectivity. In contrast, the steeper slopes remain disconnected for prolonged periods and need large recharge events to overcome storage thresholds. GW responses vary seasonally, and landscape controls on the spatial organization of GW dynamics are strongest at low flows and in small events. During wettest periods, limited storage and extensive saturation weaken such controls. This study demonstrated that montane catchments can have highly dynamic GW stores, which are important in generating both storm flows and baseflows. Copyright © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Water sources and mixing in riparian wetlands revealed by tracers and geospatial analysis

Abstract: Mixing of waters within riparian zones has been identified as an important influence on runoff generation and water quality. Improved understanding of the controls on the spatial and temporal variability of water sources and how they mix in riparian zones is therefore of both fundamental and applied interest. In this study, we have combined topographic indices derived from a high-resolution Digital Elevation Model (DEM) with repeated spatially high-resolution synoptic sampling of multiple tracers to investigate such dynamics of source water mixing. We use geostatistics to estimate concentrations of three different tracers (deuterium, alkalinity, and dissolved organic carbon) across an extended riparian zone in a headwater catchment in NE Scotland, to identify spatial and temporal influences on mixing of source waters. The various biogeochemical tracers and stable isotopes helped constrain the sources of runoff and their temporal dynamics. Results show that spatial variability in all three tracers was evident in all sampling campaigns, but more pronounced in warmer dryer periods. The extent of mixing areas within the riparian area reflected strong hydroclimatic controls and showed large degrees of expansion and contraction that was not strongly related to topographic indices. The integrated approach of using multiple tracers, geospatial statistics, and topographic analysis allowed us to classify three main riparian source areas and mixing zones. This study underlines the importance of the riparian zones for mixing soil water and groundwater and introduces a novel approach how this mixing can be quantified and the effect on the downstream chemistry be assessed.

Using Geophysical Surveys to Test Tracer-Based Storage Estimates in Headwater Catchments

Abstract: Hydrogeophysical surveys were carried out in a 3.2 km2 Scottish catchment where previous isotope studies inferred significant groundwater storage that makes important contributions to streamflow. We used electrical resistivity tomography (ERT) to characterize the architecture of glacial drifts and make an approximation of catchment‐scale storage. Four ERT lines (360–535 m in length) revealed extensive 5–10 m deep drift cover on steeper slopes, which extends up to 20–40 m in valley bottom areas. Assuming low clay fractions, we interpret variable resistivity as correlating with variations in porosity and water content. Using Archie's Law as a first approximation, we compute likely bounds for storage along the ERT transects. Areas of highest groundwater storage occur in valley bottom peat soils (up to 4 m deep) and underlying drift where up to 10 000 mm of precipitation equivalent may be stored. This is consistent with groundwater levels which indicate saturation to within 0.2 m of the surface. However, significant slow groundwater flow paths occur in the shallower drifts on steeper hillslopes, where point storage varies between ~1000 mm–5000 mm. These fluxes maintain saturated conditions in the valley bottom and are recharged from drift‐free areas on the catchment interfluves. The surveys indicate that catchment scale storage is >2000 mm which is consistent with tracer‐based estimates. Copyright © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Linking tracers, water age and conceptual models to identify dominant runoff processes in a sparsely monitored humid tropical catchment

Abstract: Assessing catchment runoff response remains a key research frontier because of limitations in current observational techniques to fully characterize water source areas and transit times in diverse geographical environments. Here, we report a study that combines empirical data with modelling to identify dominant runoff processes in a sparsely monitored humid tropical catchment. The analysis integrated isotope tracers into conceptual rainfall–runoff models of varying complexity (from 5 to 11 calibrated parameters) that are able to simulate discharge and tracer concentrations and track the evolving age of stream water exiting the catchment. The model structures can be seen as competing hypotheses of catchment functioning and were simultaneously calibrated against uncertain streamflow gaugings and a 2-year daily isotope rainfall–runoff record. Comparison of the models was facilitated using global parameter sensitivity analysis and the resulting effect on calibration. We show that a variety of tested model structures reproduced water and tracer dynamics in stream, but the simpler models failed to adequately reproduce both. The resulting water age distributions of the tested models varied significantly with little similarity between the stream water age and stored water age distributions. The sensitivity analysis revealed that only some of the more complex models (from eight parameters) could be better constrained to infer more plausible water age distributions and catchment storage estimates. These models indicated that the age of water stored in the catchment is generally older compared with the age of water fluxes, with evapotranspiration age being younger compared with streamflow. However, the water age distributions followed a similar temporal behaviour dominated by climatic seasonality. Stream water ages increased during the dry season (greater than 1 year) and decreased with increased streamflow (a few weeks old) during the wet season. We further show that the ratios of the streamwater age to stored water age distribution and the water age distribution of actual evapotranspiration to the stored water age distribution from constrained models could potentially serve as useful hydrological indicators of catchment functioning. Copyright © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Modelling storage‐driven connectivity between landscapes and riverscapes: towards a simple framework for long‐term ecohydrological assessment

Abstract: Acknowledgements: We thank Iain Malcolm of Marine Scotland Science for access to data from the Girnock and the Scottish Environment Protection Agency for historical stage-discharge relationships. CS contributions on this paper were in part supported by the NERC/JPI SIWA project (NE/M019896/1).

Heat-based hyporheic flux calculations in heterogeneous salmon spawning gravels

Abstract: Groundwater-surface water interactions in rivers are a critically important factor for fish spawning, as streamwater downwelling or upwelling of low-oxygen groundwater can affect egg survival. Assessing such dynamics at the reach scale using distributed temperature measurements as a tracer proved reliable in determining flux rates and directions in the hyporheic zone in a number of studies. Here, we report heat-based vertical flux rates from a heterogeneous gravel-bed stream reach used by spawning Atlantic salmon in the Scottish Highlands. Results showed mostly small downwelling fluxes (~0.3 m d−1), which were largely independent of discharge. Contrasting, and at times unusual flux-depth profiles (e.g., increasing flux with depth) were detected, consistent with the heterogeneous streambed material causing diverse hyporheic flow paths. This was tested in a numerical 2-D model setup attempting to reproduce such behavior with variable random hydraulic conductivity (K) fields. The 2-D model clearly demonstrated that strong deviations from the expected decrease of fluxes with depth can be explained by high heterogeneity coupled with relatively low K fields. This showed that using simple 1-D heat-based flux estimates in combination with 2-D models is a useful approach to testing hypotheses about the influence of variable streambed materials on groundwater–surface water exchange in an ecological context.

Continuous Dissolved Oxygen Measurements and Modelling Metabolism in Peatland Streams.

Abstract: Stream water dissolved oxygen was monitored in a 3.2km2 moorland headwater catchment in the Scottish Highlands. The stream consists of three 1st order headwaters and a 2nd order main stem. The stream network is fringed by peat soils with no riparian trees, though dwarf shrubs provide shading in the lower catchment. Dissolved oxygen (DO) is regulated by the balance between atmospheric re-aeration and the metabolic processes of photosynthesis and respiration. DO was continuously measured for >1 year and the data used to calibrate a mass balance model, to estimate primary production, respiration and re-aeration for a 1st order site and in the 2nd order main stem. Results showed that the stream was always heterotrophic at both sites. Sites were most heterotrophic in the summer reflecting higher levels of stream metabolism. The 1st order stream appeared more heterotrophic which was consistent with the evident greater biomass of macrophytes in the 2nd order stream, with resulting higher primary productivity. Comparison between respiration, primary production, re-aeration and potential physical controls revealed only weak relationships. However, the most basic model parameters (e.g. the parameter linking light and photosynthesis) controlling ecosystem processes resulted in significant differences between the sites which seem related to the stream channel geometry.

Visualisation of spatial patterns of connectivity and runoff ages derived from a tracer-aided model

Abstract: We thank the European Research Council ERC (project GA 335910 VEWA) for funding the VeWa project.