Social network sites SNSs are increasingly attracting the attention of academic and industry researchers intrigued by their affordances and reach This special theme section of the Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication brings together scholarship on these emergent phenomena In this introductory article, we describe features of SNSs and propose a comprehensive definition We then present one perspective on the history of such sites, discussing key changes and developments After briefly summarizing existing scholarship concerning SNSs, we discuss the articles in this special section and conclude with considerations for future research

https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1111/j.1083-6101.2007.00393.x

Social Network Sites: Definition, History, and Scholarship

Basics of qualitative research: Grounded theory procedures and techniques

http://www.iowaaces360.org/uploads/1/0/9/2/10925571/relationship_of_childhood_abuse_and..._1998.pdf

Relationship of childhood abuse and household dysfunction to many of the leading causes of death in adults. The Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACE) Study

The world report on violence and health.

Attachment--and loss.

To determine the prevalence in Australia of multi‐type child maltreatment, defined as two or more maltreatment types (physical abuse, sexual abuse, emotional abuse, neglect, or exposure to domestic violence) and to examine its nature, family risk factors, and gender and age cohort differences.

https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdfdirect/10.5694/mja2.51868

The prevalence and nature of multi‐type child maltreatment in Australia

To estimate the prevalence in Australia of each type of child maltreatment; to identify gender‐ and age group‐related differences in prevalence.

The prevalence of child maltreatment in Australia: findings from a national survey

The Four Preconditions Model

Disclaimer: The views expressed in this paper are those of the author and do not necessarily reflect the positions of the FOSI Board of Directors or staff.

/pdf/increasing-youth-safety-and-responsible-behavior-online-47w5ra3mee.pdf

Increasing Youth Safety and Responsible Behavior Online: Putting in Place Programs that Work.

Results from the National Juvenile Online Victimization (N‐ JOV) Prosecutor Study indicate that prosecutors use a mix of strategies to handle defendants who possess large amounts of child pornography (CP) Prosecutors reported difficulties with computer forensics and the police investigation, but not so much with defense strategies One‐quarter of prosecutors who dealt with CP cases had one that went in front of a jury in the past 2 years Nearly half of prosecutors would like clearer guidelines about the types of CP cases accepted for federal prosecution Purpose The prosecution of child pornography possession has in‐ creased in recent years, as the internet has enhanced its avail‐ ability and law enforcement has refined its techniques for its detection But this prosecution has raised many issues about the consistency in standards, problems with the statutory framework, and the suitability of the punishments being sought This bulletin explores prosecution dilemmas and chal‐ lenges for child pornography crimes It examines 1) charging decisions and difficulties encountered; 2) the resolution of child pornography cases; and 3) prosecutor experience with other aspects of cases, such as risk assessment, judges’ rul‐ ings, and referring for federal prosecution The appendix pro‐ vides results on additional questions The data come from wave 3 of the National Juvenile Online Victimization (N‐JOV) Study January 2013 Prosecution Dilemmas and Challenges for Child Pornography Crimes: The Third National Juvenile Online Victimization Study (NJOV‐3) Wendy Walsh, Janis Wolak, & David Finkelhor Arrests for Child Pornography (CP) Arrests for crimes involving CP possession grew significantly between 2000 and 2009 In 2009, US law enforcement agen‐ cies made an estimated 4,901 arrests for CP possession, almost 3 times as many as in 2000 and a 33% increase over 2006 ar‐ rests In 2009, almost all arrested CP possessors were men, and the largest age groups were age 40 or older (41%) or age 26 to 30 (33%) About 1 in 5 arrested CP possessors was age 18 to 25 and 7% were 17 or younger Most arrested offenders had im‐ ages of children ages 6 to 12, images of girls and images that depicted sexual penetration About two‐thirds (65%) had CP videos In 2009, 29% of arrested CP possessors were dual of‐ fenders (ie CP possessors who also committed a concurrent sex crime against a minor) Arrested CP possessors generally have many images, 21% of those arrested in 2009 had more than 1,000 still images and only 21% of possessors had fewer than 50 images (unpublished data, 2012) Given the growth and complexity of these crimes, it is critical to better under‐ stand dilemmas and challenges prosecutors encounter What is child pornography? Possession of child pornography (CP) is a felony under federal law and in every state The federal statutes that criminalize CP possession define “child” as age 17 or younger, and CP as the “visual depictionof sexually explicit conduct” (18 USCS 2256) Sexually explicit conduct includes acts such as inter‐ course, bestiality, and masturbation, as well as “lascivious ex‐ hibition of the genitals or pubic area” This generally excludes images of naked children who are not being depicted with the intention to arouse sexual interest Most states mirror federal law, although there is some variation in the definition of child and the content that is proscribed CHARGING DECISIONS AND DIFFICULITIES ENCOUN‐ TERED Although many offenders arrested for CP possess more than one image, one of the issues for prosecutors is whether there is a tipping point for charging –are cases with only one image enough to prosecute? How are charging decisions made when an offender has lots of CP images? For example, are defen‐ dants charged for the entire CP collection or for some of the images? Another key issue to understand is the types of diffi‐ culties prosecutors encounter, such as what types of defenses are formally raised Understanding the decisions and issues prosecutors face will help enhance our understanding about effective ways to prosecute child pornography A mix of strategies used to handle charging defendants who possess large amounts of CP Many prosecutors noted that charging decisions were done on a case by case basis and that the number of images used in charging is picked based on the prosecutor’s discretion, but there is no maximum or minimum Prosecu t ion Di l emmas & Cha l l enges f o r CP C r imes Page 2 Nearly all prosecutors said that one or two images would be enough to prosecute if statutory elements were present but that they usually always find more One prosecutor noted that he has never had a case with fewer than 10 images; while an‐ other prosecutor noted that he has never had a case with fewer than 20 images There was a wide range in the strategies used regarding charging defendants who possess large amounts of CP Some prosecutors noted that there was no point charging beyond a certain level; with some mentioning not going beyond 10‐15 counts and others mentioning 30 or so counts Other prosecu‐ tors said they could only charge 1 count or 1 charge no matter how many images Another strategy mentioned was to pick a small group of the worst 1 to 5 images and only charge for those images; while other prosecutors grouped the images into categories, such as by the date or the type of image and then charged based on the number of different categories of images Other strategies were to charge for every picture, charge 1 count for each type of media (ie computer, cell phone, external hard drive) or each location images were found (regardless of the number), or to only charge for those images with identified victims Rather than difficulties with formally raised defenses, prosecutors encountered difficulties with computer foren‐ sics or the police investigation Child pornography crimes can be difficult for prosecutors be‐ cause prosecutors need to prove that the defendant know‐ ingly possessed the images In order to explore what types of defenses prosecutors are encountering, we asked prosecutors what types of formally raised defenses they had experienced in the past two years Figure 2 Difficulties with computer forensics or the police investigation When prosecutors had any of these difficulties, only 16% re‐ ported that charges against the defendant were ultimately dismissed because of problems with the police investigation or forensic exam When this occurred, the vast majority of prose‐ cutors (79%) reported that this occurred in only one case Half of prosecutors (56%) handled a case where the defense formally raised technology related issues that required the prosecutor to explain technical details to a judge or jury When this happened, 75% of prosecutors reported being mostly or very satisfied with resources their office had to explain techni‐ cal evidence or rebutting technical defenses Figure 1 Types of formally raised defenses prosecutors encountered One‐third of prosecutors (31%) reported that these defenses created real difficulty, such as a significantly reduced plea, dismissal of charges, or losing the case More than difficulties with formally raised defenses, 62% of prosecutors encountered difficulties with computer forensics or the police investigation RESOLUTION OF CP CASES Using data from the NJOV3 law enforcement data in 2009, 72% of arrested CP offenders were charged with state crimes Case outcomes were known in 63% of cases with state charges Eighty‐four percent of cases in which outcomes were known ended with guilty pleas and 5% with convictions after trial Charges were dropped or dismissed in 7% There was some other outcome, such as suspect died, or respondents did not know the outcome in 4% No cases ended in acquittals after trial Although only a minority of CP cases are resolved by trial, due to the nature of CP images, there are a number of special is‐ sues that pertain when CP cases are resolved in trial One is the viewing of CP images by juries and courtrooms A minority of prosecutors had a CP case go to trial in the past 2 years One‐third (33%) of prosecutors had a CP case go to trial in the past 2 years One‐quarter (26%) of prosecutors in the sample had a CP case in front of a jury in the past 2 years

/pdf/prosecution-dilemmas-and-challenges-for-child-pornography-1zr9kxb5lh.pdf

David Finkelhor

Papers

The prevalence and nature of multi‐type child maltreatment in Australia

The prevalence of child maltreatment in Australia: findings from a national survey

The Four Preconditions Model

Increasing Youth Safety and Responsible Behavior Online: Putting in Place Programs that Work.

Prosecution Dilemmas and Challenges for Child Pornography Crimes: TheThird National Juvenile OnlineVictimization Study (NJOV‐3)