抗原变异可使得多种致病微生物易于逃避宿主免疫应答。表达在感染红细胞表面的恶性疟原虫红细胞表面蛋白1（PfPMP1）与感染红细胞、内皮细胞、树突状细胞以及胎盘的单个或多个受体作用，在黏附及免疫逃避中起关键的作用。每个单倍体基因组var基因家族编码约60种成员，通过启动转录不同的var基因变异体为抗原变异提供了分子基础。

疟原虫var基因转换速率变化导致抗原变异[英]／Paul H, Robert P, Christodoulou Z, et al//Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A

Single-layer metal dichalcogenides are two-dimensional semiconductors that present strong potential for electronic and sensing applications complementary to that of graphene.

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Electronics and optoelectronics of two-dimensional transition metal dichalcogenides.

Graphene is a wonder material with many superlatives to its name. It is the thinnest known material in the universe and the strongest ever measured. Its charge carriers exhibit giant intrinsic mobility, have zero effective mass, and can travel for micrometers without scattering at room temperature. Graphene can sustain current densities six orders of magnitude higher than that of copper, shows record thermal conductivity and stiffness, is impermeable to gases, and reconciles such conflicting qualities as brittleness and ductility. Electron transport in graphene is described by a Dirac-like equation, which allows the investigation of relativistic quantum phenomena in a benchtop experiment. This review analyzes recent trends in graphene research and applications, and attempts to identify future directions in which the field is likely to develop.

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Graphene: Status and Prospects

Topological insulators are new states of quantum matter which cannot be adiabatically connected to conventional insulators and semiconductors. They are characterized by a full insulating gap in the bulk and gapless edge or surface states which are protected by time-reversal symmetry. These topological materials have been theoretically predicted and experimentally observed in a variety of systems, including HgTe quantum wells, BiSb alloys, and Bi2Te3 and Bi2Se3 crystals. Theoretical models, materials properties, and experimental results on two-dimensional and three-dimensional topological insulators are reviewed, and both the topological band theory and the topological field theory are discussed. Topological superconductors have a full pairing gap in the bulk and gapless surface states consisting of Majorana fermions. The theory of topological superconductors is reviewed, in close analogy to the theory of topological insulators.

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Topological insulators and superconductors

There is intense interest in graphene in fields such as physics, chemistry, and materials science, among others. Interest in graphene's exceptional physical properties, chemical tunability, and potential for applications has generated thousands of publications and an accelerating pace of research, making review of such research timely. Here is an overview of the synthesis, properties, and applications of graphene and related materials (primarily, graphite oxide and its colloidal suspensions and materials made from them), from a materials science perspective.

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Graphene and Graphene Oxide: Synthesis, Properties, and Applications

We report results of micro-Raman spectroscopy investigation of the "graphene-like" mechanically exfoliated single-crystal bismuth telluride films with the thickness ranging from a few-nm-range to bulk limit. It is found that the optical phonon mode A1u, which is not-Raman active in bulk bismuth telluride crystals, appears in the atomically-thin films due to crystal-symmetry breaking. The intensity ratios of the out-of-plane A1u and A1g modes to the in-plane Eg mode grow with decreasing film thickness. The evolution of Raman signatures with the film thickness can be used for identification of bismuth telluride crystals with the thickness of few-quintuple layers, which are important for topological insulator and thermoelectric applications.

Crystal Symmetry Breaking in Few-Quintuple Bismuth Telluride Films: Applications in Nanometrology of Topological Insulators

The authors report results of micro-Raman spectroscopy investigation of mechanically exfoliated single-crystal bismuth telluride films with thickness ranging from a few-nanometers to bulk limit. It is found that the optical phonon mode A1u, which is not-Raman active in bulk Bi2Te3 crystals, appears in the atomically-thin films due to crystal-symmetry breaking. The intensity ratios of the out-of-plane A1u and A1g modes to the in-plane Eg mode grow with decreasing film thickness. The evolution of Raman signatures with the film thickness can be used for identification of Bi2Te3 crystals with the thickness of few-quintuple layers important for topological insulator and thermoelectric applications.

Crystal symmetry breaking in few-quintuple Bi2Te3 films: Applications in nanometrology of topological insulators

The authors report on “graphene-like” mechanical exfoliation of single-crystal Bi2Te3 films and thermoelectric characterization of the stacks of such films. Thermal conductivity of the resulting “pseudosuperlattices” was measured by the “hot disk” and “laser flash” techniques. The room temperature in-plane (cross-plane) thermal conductivity of the stacks decreases by a factor of ∼2.4 (3.5) as compared to bulk. The thermal conductivity reduction with preserved electrical properties leads to strong increase in the thermoelectric figure of merit. It is suggested that the film thinning to few-quintuples and tuning of the Fermi level can help in achieving the topological-insulator surface transport regime with an extraordinary thermoelectric efficiency.

Mechanically-Exfoliated Stacks of Thin Films of Bi2Te3 Topological Insulators with Enhanced Thermoelectric Performance

We report on "graphene-like" mechanical exfoliation of single-crystal Bi2Te3 films and thermoelectric characterization of the stacks of such films. Thermal conductivity of the resulting "pseudo-superlattices" was measured by the "hot disk" and "laser flash" techniques. The room-temperature in-plane (cross-plane) thermal conductivity of the stacks decreases by a factor of ~2.4 (3.5) as compared to bulk. The thermal conductivity reduction with preserved electrical properties leads to strong increase in the thermoelectric figure of merit. It is suggested that the film thinning to few-quintuples and tuning of the Fermi level can help in achieving the topological-insulator surface transport regime with an extraordinary thermoelectric efficiency.

Mechanically-Exfoliated Stacks of Thin Films of Bismuth Telluride Topological Insulators with Enhanced Thermoelectric Performance

The authors report on “graphene-like” exfoliation of the large-area crystalline films and ribbons of bismuth telluride with the thicknesses of a few atoms. It is demonstrated that Bi2Te3 crystal can be mechanically separated into its building blocks—Te–Bi–Te–Bi–Te atomic fivefolds—with the thickness of ∼1 nm and even further—to subunits with smaller thicknesses. The atomically-thin films can be structured into suspended crystalline ribbons providing quantum confinement in two dimensions. The quasi two-dimensional crystals of bismuth telluride revealed high electrical conductivity and low thermal conductivity. The proposed atomic-layer engineering of bismuth telluride opens up a principally new route for drastic enhancement of the thermoelectric figure of merit.

Desalegne Teweldebrhan

Papers

Crystal Symmetry Breaking in Few-Quintuple Bismuth Telluride Films: Applications in Nanometrology of Topological Insulators

Crystal symmetry breaking in few-quintuple Bi2Te3 films: Applications in nanometrology of topological insulators

Mechanically-Exfoliated Stacks of Thin Films of Bi2Te3 Topological Insulators with Enhanced Thermoelectric Performance

Mechanically-Exfoliated Stacks of Thin Films of Bismuth Telluride Topological Insulators with Enhanced Thermoelectric Performance

Atomically-thin crystalline films and ribbons of bismuth telluride