Non-destructive eddy current testing (ECT) is widely used to examine structural defects in ferromagnetic pipe in the oil and gas industry. Implementation of giant magnetoresistance (GMR) sensors as magnetic field sensors to detect the changes of magnetic field continuity have increased the sensitivity of eddy current techniques in detecting the material defect profile. However, not many researchers have described in detail the structure and issues of GMR sensors and their application in eddy current techniques for nondestructive testing. This paper will describe the implementation of GMR sensors in non-destructive testing eddy current testing. The first part of this paper will describe the structure and principles of GMR sensors. The second part outlines the principles and types of eddy current testing probe that have been studied and developed by previous researchers. The influence of various parameters on the GMR measurement and a factor affecting in eddy current testing will be described in detail in the third part of this paper. Finally, this paper will discuss the limitations of coil probe and compensation techniques that researchers have applied in eddy current testing probes. A comprehensive review of previous studies on the application of GMR sensors in non-destructive eddy current testing also be given at the end of this paper.

https://www.mdpi.com/1424-8220/16/3/298/pdf

Giant Magnetoresistance Sensors: A Review on Structures and Non-Destructive Eddy Current Testing Applications

Characterizing internal structures and defects in materials is a challenging task, often requiring solutions to inverse problems with unknown topology, geometry, material properties, and nonlinear deformation. Here, we present a general framework based on physics-informed neural networks for identifying unknown geometric and material parameters. By using a mesh-free method, we parameterize the geometry of the material using a differentiable and trainable method that can identify multiple structural features. We validate this approach for materials with internal voids/inclusions using constitutive models that encompass the spectrum of linear elasticity, hyperelasticity, and plasticity. We predict the size, shape, and location of the internal void/inclusion as well as the elastic modulus of the inclusion. Our general framework can be applied to other inverse problems in different applications that involve unknown material properties and highly deformable geometries, targeting material characterization, quality assurance, and structural design.

https://www.science.org/doi/pdf/10.1126/sciadv.abk0644?download=true

Analyses of internal structures and defects in materials using physics-informed neural networks

Pulsed eddy current (PEC) technique is used for the detection of sub-surface defects in electrically conducting materials. In order to extend the application of PEC technique for the detection of defects in thick non-magnetic materials, the detection sensitivity of the probe need to be enhanced. Detection sensitivity of the probe mainly depends on the probe configuration. In view of this, optimisation of probe configuration for deeper penetration of magnetic field in the material is carried out through finite element modelling. Present study focuses on model based design optimisation of PEC probe for the detection of sub-surface defects located more than 4 mm from surface in a 8 mm thick AISI type 316 stainless steel plate. The performance of ferrite cored absolute probe, ferrite cored send-receive probe and ferrite cored send-receive probe with outer shielding has been compared and optimised probe has been fabricated. The detection sensitivity of the optimised probe has been studied using machined notches introduced at different depths.

Optimisation of pulsed eddy current probe for detection of sub-surface defects in stainless steel plates

High-speed inspection of inner diameter (ID) and outer diameter (OD) surface defects on thick-wall steel pipes is an important aspect to advance the pipeline inline inspection (ILI) in the oil and gas industry. The state-of-the-art ILI methods including magnetic flux leakage (MFL), ultrasonic testing (UT), electromagnetic acoustic transducer (EMAT), eddy current (EC) and pulsed eddy current (PEC) are hardly applicable to practical high-speed pipeline ILI due to the reasons of long inspection time required for sensor response and low detection sensitivity caused by severe motion. New sensing techniques that offer faster inspection speed, deeper signal penetration depth, better detection sensitivity and linearity, as well as capability of ID/OD discrimination are imperatively needed. This paper proposes a novel PEC sensing method to detect and discriminate ID/OD defects by utilizing the conductivity-dependent and permeability-dependent distribution patterns of induced eddy current at the ID surface of steel pipes. For ID defects, the pattern is caused by the discontinuous conductivity distribution, while for OD defects, the pattern is caused by the non-uniform incremental permeability distribution. A pulse-excited current with short width (2.5 μs), low duty cycle (1%) and fast-falling edge (100 ns) is injected into an excitation coil, so that the secondary magnetic field at the fast-falling edge will produce a transient oscillation in a pair of differential pick-up coils. Then, the time-domain transient oscillatory pick-up signal is extended, filtered, amplified, and extracted to be one feature by an envelope detector and an average sample method, which is processed in real-time by the developed probe for facilitating the back-end data recording. Meanwhile, a novel high-speed pipeline inspection gauge (PIG) with a sensor array is developed for field testing to validate the effectiveness of the proposed PEC method that achieved high inspection speed, deep detection depth, superior sensitivity, good linearity, low power consumption, easy implementation, ID/OD discrimination and crack detection capability.

A novel pulsed eddy current method for high-speed pipeline inline inspection

In this study, an eddy current (EC) detector is integrated in an additive/subtractive hybrid manufacturing (ASHM) process. The detector facilitates in-process inspection and repair operations through material deposition, defect detection, and removal processes layer by layer. A feasibility test is carried out on eddy current detection of subsurface defects in additively manufactured parts by using an EC detector. The study compares the results obtained from the EC detection with those by the X-ray computed tomography and the destructive methods. Experiments and simulations are conducted to investigate the effect of excitation frequency on intensity of the eddy current signal. The effects of residual heat of an additively manufactured specimen and lift-off distance of an EC probe on impedance changes are also investigated. In addition, the effect of defect width on EC signal is analyzed. The study shows that the EC method is capable of detecting subsurface defects in the ASHM parts. It is promising to integrate the EC detection and subtractive manufacturing into additive manufacturing to produce parts with improved quality and better performances.

Eddy current detection of subsurface defects for additive/subtractive hybrid manufacturing

The nondestructive method to detect subsurface defects is limited because conventional eddy current are concentrated near to the surfaces adjacent to the excitation coil. The PEC technique enables detection of cracks buried deeper under the surface with relatively small current density. In the present study, an attempt has been made to investigate detection of subsurface cracks using a specially designed double-D differential probe. The tested sample is a SS304 with a thickness of 5 mm; small EDM notches were machined in the test sample at different depths from the surface to simulate the sub surface cracks in a pipe. The designed PEC probe has two excitation coils and two detecting Hall-sensors. The difference between two sensors is the resultant PEC signal. The cracks under the surface were detected using peak amplitude of the detected pulse; in addition, for a clear understanding of the crack depth, the Fourier transform is applied. In time domain, the peak amplitude of the detected pulse is decreased, and in the frequency domain, the magnitude of the lower frequency component has been increased with an increase in the crack depth. The experimental results have indicated that the proposed differential probe has the potential to detect the sub surface cracks in a stainless steel structure.

Detection of the Subsurface Cracks in a Stainless Steel Plate Using Pulsed Eddy Current

Tunable spin injection and detection across a van der Waals interface

Interfaces with surrounding materials, where charged impurities and surface roughness are present, have a significant impact on the electrical and optical properties of 2D materials. In the change of the phonon modes of MoS2 accompanied by thickness variation, the portion caused by intrinsic factors and the portion caused by the interface effect are separated by examining the result of encapsulation with hexagonal boron nitride (hBN). For instance, the frequency of the A1g peak of MoS2 supported by SiO2 decreases by ≈4 cm−1 in air for a thickness reduction from ten layers to monolayer. Of this decrease, roughly 2 cm−1 is attributable to the weakening of the van der Waals interlayer interaction, while the remaining 2 cm−1 is due to the interface effect. The interface state, that is, the types and concentrations of impurities at the interface, between MoS2 and SiO2 is estimated to be similar to that between MoS2 and air because the Raman properties when one surface of MoS2 is in contact with SiO2 and with air are identical within the measurement error. When entirely encapsulated with hBN, the width of the A1g peak of few‐layer MoS2 is significantly reduced, becoming comparable or equal to that of bulk MoS2.

https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdfdirect/10.1002/admi.202300002

hBN Encapsulation Effects on the Phonon Modes of MoS2 with a Thickness of 1 to 10 Layers

Weak interlayer couplings at 2D van der Waals (vdW) interfaces fundamentally distinguish out‐of‐plane charge flow, the information carrier in vdW‐assembled vertical electronic and optical devices, from the in‐plane band transport processes. Here, the out‐of‐plane charge transport behavior in 2D vdW semiconducting transition metal dichalcogenides (SCTMD) is reported. The measurements demonstrate that, in the high electric field regime, especially at low temperatures, either electron or hole carrier Fowler–Nordheim (FN) tunneling becomes the dominant quantum transport process in ultrathin SCTMDs, down to monolayers. For few‐layer SCTMDs, sequential layer‐by‐layer FN tunneling is observed to dominate the charge flow, thus serving as a material characterization probe for addressing the Fermi level positions and the layer numbers of the SCTMD films. Furthermore, it is shown that the physical confinement of the electron or hole carrier wave packets inside the sub‐nm thick semiconducting layers reduces the vertical quantum tunneling probability, leading to an enhanced effective mass of tunneling carriers.

https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdfdirect/10.1002/aelm.202300051

Duk Hyun Lee

Papers

Detection of the Subsurface Cracks in a Stainless Steel Plate Using Pulsed Eddy Current

Tunable spin injection and detection across a van der Waals interface

hBN Encapsulation Effects on the Phonon Modes of MoS2 with a Thickness of 1 to 10 Layers

Microscopic Quantum Transport Processes of Out‐of‐Plane Charge Flow in 2D Semiconductors Analyzed by a Fowler–Nordheim Tunneling Probe