A concept for the optimization of nonlinear functions using particle swarm methodology is introduced. The evolution of several paradigms is outlined, and an implementation of one of the paradigms is discussed. Benchmark testing of the paradigm is described, and applications, including nonlinear function optimization and neural network training, are proposed. The relationships between particle swarm optimization and both artificial life and genetic algorithms are described.

Particle swarm optimization

Conservationists are far from able to assist all species under threat, if only for lack of funding. This places a premium on priorities: how can we support the most species at the least cost? One way is to identify 'biodiversity hotspots' where exceptional concentrations of endemic species are undergoing exceptional loss of habitat. As many as 44% of all species of vascular plants and 35% of all species in four vertebrate groups are confined to 25 hotspots comprising only 1.4% of the land surface of the Earth. This opens the way for a 'silver bullet' strategy on the part of conservation planners, focusing on these hotspots in proportion to their share of the world's species at risk.

Biodiversity hotspots for conservation priorities

A concept for the optimization of nonlinear functions using particle swarm methodology is introduced The evolution of several paradigms is outlined, and an implementation of one of the paradigms is discussed Benchmark testing of the paradigm is described, and applications, including nonlinear function optimization and neural network training, are proposed The relationships between particle swarm optimization and both artificial life and genetic algorithms are described

/pdf/particle-swarm-optimization-r1hjpa7ad3.pdf

Cooperation in organisms, whether bacteria or primates, has been a difficulty for evolutionary theory since Darwin. On the assumption that interactions between pairs of individuals occur on a probabilistic basis, a model is developed based on the concept of an evolutionarily stable strategy in the context of the Prisoner's Dilemma game. Deductions from the model, and the results of a computer tournament show how cooperation based on reciprocity can get started in an asocial world, can thrive while interacting with a wide range of other strategies, and can resist invasion once fully established. Potential applications include specific aspects of territoriality, mating, and disease.

/pdf/the-evolution-of-cooperation-pwc4krac7e.pdf

The Evolution of Cooperation

Preface to the Princeton Landmarks in Biology Edition vii Preface xi Symbols Used xiii 1. The Importance of Islands 3 2. Area and Number of Speicies 8 3. Further Explanations of the Area-Diversity Pattern 19 4. The Strategy of Colonization 68 5. Invasibility and the Variable Niche 94 6. Stepping Stones and Biotic Exchange 123 7. Evolutionary Changes Following Colonization 145 8. Prospect 181 Glossary 185 References 193 Index 201

The Theory of Island Biogeography

O n 11 January 2010, the United Nations inaugurated the International Year of Biodiversity in Berlin. This initiative is timely, because the environmental movement suffers from an imbalance between its sense of urgency and its intensity of activity. Center stage is now occupied by concerns for the physical environment— in particular, climate change, pollution, and depletion of nonrenewable resources. However, if the living world is to be kept in anything approaching a sustainable condition that can adapt to changes, then politicians, government offi cials, scientists, and the public will need to give biodiversity the urgent attention that they are starting to give to the physical environment. About 1.9 million species ( 1) have been discovered and given scientific names ( 2), though the actual number may exceed 10 million ( 3). Bacteria and archeans could comprise tens of millions species—once taxonomic units are precisely defi ned. Knowledge about species and extinction rates remains very poor, and species disappear before we know they existed. We propose that, as scientists are better able to assess the conservation status of the species that compose an ecosystem, the more they will understand the health of that ecosystem. It is time to accelerate taxonomy and scientifi c natural history, two of the most vital but neglected disciplines of biology ( 4, 5). The Encyclopedia of Life (EOL), a powerful initiative ( 5), is now fully operational and working toward its goal of documenting every known species. Essential though the EOL is, it needs to be complemented by another project, the “Barometer of Life.” This initiative would need to unite taxonomists, biogeographers, ecologists, conservationists, and amateur naturalists in a coordinated exploration of global biodiversity, with an emphasis on identifying which species are threatened. While the EOL will provide a Web page on every species, the barometer would compile conservation-related data on distributions, threats, and assessments of extinction risk on a subset of species broadly representative of biodiversity as a whole. The logical platform for this barometer is The Red List of Threatened Species ( 6) of the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN), which, for over 45 years, has published information on the status and trends of species. The IUCN Red List began by focusing on selected species, but it now covers entire taxonomic classes. It provided the fi rst global picture of vertebrate diversity—a measure of the magnitude, geography and type of threats among several taxonomic groups, and a baseline from which to measure changes in status of species ( 7, 8). The IUCN Red List includes assessments of all species of mammals, birds, amphibians, freshwater crabs, reef-building corals, cycads, and conifers ( 8). More than 250 national red lists for various taxonomic groups have been developed in >100 countries ( 9). However, the Red List is biased toward higher vertebrates. The vast majority of species—including most plants, invertebrates, and lower vertebrates, and almost all fungi— are still grossly underrepresented. A more finely tuned barometer is within reach by expanding the taxonomic base of the Red List to make it much more representative of the diversity of life. We anticipate that a representative barometer will need to monitor the status of 160,000 species (see table, above), roughly three times the almost 48,000 species currently on the Red List. The target number of species to be assessed is still provisional. Some groups (e.g., nematodes and sponges) are so poorly known that it would be hard to include them in the barometer at this time. A representative barometer would provide a solid basis for informing decisions globally, for example, on conservation planning, resource allocation, environmental impact assessments, monitoring biodiversity trends (through the IUCN Red List Index) ( 7, 8), and enabling countries to develop national-level biodiversity indicators ( 10). For the Red List to reach its full potential as the Barometer of Life, a substantial increase in the magnitude of the current effort will be required. About U.S.$4 million is spent annually to maintain and enhance the IUCN Red List ( 11), in addition to voluntary contributions of thousands of biologists worldwide. The total cost of achieving the broader taxonomic base is on the order of U.S.$60 million. The barometer would, from an economic perspective, be one of the best investments for the good of humanity.

Species and Projected Costs for a Barometer of Life

In "Altruism and the Origin of the Worker Caste," Bert Hölldobler and Edward Osborne Wilson explore the evolutionary origins of worker ants. "Altruism and the Origin of the Worker Caste" is the fourth chapter of Hölldobler and Wilson's book, The Ants, which was published by The Belknap Press of Harvard University [4] in Cambridge, Massachusetts, in 1990. In "Altruism and the Origin of the Worker Caste," Hölldobler and Wilson evaluate various explanations for how a non-reproductive caste of ant evolved. Their investigation into the evolutionary origins of worker ants synthesized research on the reproductive practices of ants to provide an analysis of how sterile groups of organisms persist in a population.

Altruism and the Origin of the Worker Caste

Center for Applied Biodiversity Science. Integrating science and conservation.

https://science.sciencemag.org/content/sci/176/4035/625.full.pdf

Edward O. Wilson

Papers

Species and Projected Costs for a Barometer of Life

Altruism and the Origin of the Worker Caste

Center for Applied Biodiversity Science. Integrating science and conservation.

Non-verbal Communication. R. A. Hinde, Ed. Cambridge University Press, New York, 1972. xiv, 444 pp. + plates. $17.50

Restoring Diversity The Search for a Social and Economic Context