A concept for the optimization of nonlinear functions using particle swarm methodology is introduced. The evolution of several paradigms is outlined, and an implementation of one of the paradigms is discussed. Benchmark testing of the paradigm is described, and applications, including nonlinear function optimization and neural network training, are proposed. The relationships between particle swarm optimization and both artificial life and genetic algorithms are described.

Particle swarm optimization

Conservationists are far from able to assist all species under threat, if only for lack of funding. This places a premium on priorities: how can we support the most species at the least cost? One way is to identify 'biodiversity hotspots' where exceptional concentrations of endemic species are undergoing exceptional loss of habitat. As many as 44% of all species of vascular plants and 35% of all species in four vertebrate groups are confined to 25 hotspots comprising only 1.4% of the land surface of the Earth. This opens the way for a 'silver bullet' strategy on the part of conservation planners, focusing on these hotspots in proportion to their share of the world's species at risk.

Biodiversity hotspots for conservation priorities

A concept for the optimization of nonlinear functions using particle swarm methodology is introduced The evolution of several paradigms is outlined, and an implementation of one of the paradigms is discussed Benchmark testing of the paradigm is described, and applications, including nonlinear function optimization and neural network training, are proposed The relationships between particle swarm optimization and both artificial life and genetic algorithms are described

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Cooperation in organisms, whether bacteria or primates, has been a difficulty for evolutionary theory since Darwin. On the assumption that interactions between pairs of individuals occur on a probabilistic basis, a model is developed based on the concept of an evolutionarily stable strategy in the context of the Prisoner's Dilemma game. Deductions from the model, and the results of a computer tournament show how cooperation based on reciprocity can get started in an asocial world, can thrive while interacting with a wide range of other strategies, and can resist invasion once fully established. Potential applications include specific aspects of territoriality, mating, and disease.

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The Evolution of Cooperation

Preface to the Princeton Landmarks in Biology Edition vii Preface xi Symbols Used xiii 1. The Importance of Islands 3 2. Area and Number of Speicies 8 3. Further Explanations of the Area-Diversity Pattern 19 4. The Strategy of Colonization 68 5. Invasibility and the Variable Niche 94 6. Stepping Stones and Biotic Exchange 123 7. Evolutionary Changes Following Colonization 145 8. Prospect 181 Glossary 185 References 193 Index 201

The Theory of Island Biogeography

When Leptothorax curvispinosus Mayr workers are not regurgitating to the nest queens, they show moderate to strong aversive behavior toward this caste. Their response is not based upon aggression or dominance, but it has the effect of clearing the way to the larvae. The queens “graze” from one larva to another, licking liquid material from the region of the larval mouthparts. At least part of the liquid evidently consists of labial gland secretion.

Although the queens appear to compete for the larval liquids in an exploitative fashion, they are not organized into dominance hierarchies of the vertebrate type, nor do they appear to recognize each other as individuals, beyond distinguishing their own eggs from those laid by other queens. Strong differential reproduction was recorded as the outcome of variation in the degrees of roughness with which queens handle alien eggs and differences in the fragility of the egg shells.

Aversive Behavior and Competition within Colonies of the Ant Leptothorax curvispinosus

ROBERT PETERS, WILLIAM J. RIPPLE, CHRISTOPHER WOLF, MATTHEW MOSKWIK, GERARDO CARREÓN-ARROYO, GERARDO CEBALLOS, ANA CÓRDOVA, RODOLFO DIRZO, PAUL R. EHRLICH, AARON D. FLESCH, RURIK LIST, THOMAS E. LOVEJOY, REED F. NOSS, JESÚS PACHECO, JOSÉ K. SARUKHÁN, MICHAEL E. SOULÉ, EDWARD O. WILSON, JENNIFER R. B. MILLER, AND 2556 SCIENTIST SIGNATORIES FROM 43 COUNTRIES (INCLUDING 1472 FROM THE UNITED STATES AND 616 FROM MEXICO)

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Nature Divided, Scientists United: US–Mexico Border Wall Threatens Biodiversity and Binational Conservation

Pheidole in the new world

The coming pluralization of biology and the stewardship of systematics

The world's fauna and flora has entered a crisis unparalleled since the end of the Mesozoic Era, with the extinction rate of species now elevated to more than a thousand times that existing before the coming of humanity. Scientists and policy makers are ill-prepared to moderate this hemorrhaging, because so little is known of the biology of the Earth's millions of species and because so little effort has been directed toward conservation thus far. With the vanished species will go great potential wealth in scientific knowledge, new products, ecosystems services, and part of the natural world in which the human species originated. The need for new research and improved management is thus urgent. If it is not met, humanity will likely survive, but in a world biologically impoverished for all time.

Edward O. Wilson

Papers

Aversive Behavior and Competition within Colonies of the Ant Leptothorax curvispinosus

Nature Divided, Scientists United: US–Mexico Border Wall Threatens Biodiversity and Binational Conservation

Pheidole in the new world

The coming pluralization of biology and the stewardship of systematics

Is humanity suicidal