2.1. Solvents 4307 2.1.1. Propylene Carbonate (PC) 4308 2.1.2. Ethers 4308 2.1.3. Ethylene Carbonate (EC) 4309 2.1.4. Linear Dialkyl Carbonates 4310 2.2. Lithium Salts 4310 2.2.1. Lithium Perchlorate (LiClO4) 4311 2.2.2. Lithium Hexafluoroarsenate (LiAsF6) 4312 2.2.3. Lithium Tetrafluoroborate (LiBF4) 4312 2.2.4. Lithium Trifluoromethanesulfonate (LiTf) 4312 2.2.5. Lithium Bis(trifluoromethanesulfonyl)imide (LiIm) and Its Derivatives 4313

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Nonaqueous liquid electrolytes for lithium-based rechargeable batteries.

Li-ion battery technology has become very important in recent years as these batteries show great promise as power sources that can lead us to the electric vehicle (EV) revolution. The development of new materials for Li-ion batteries is the focus of research in prominent groups in the field of materials science throughout the world. Li-ion batteries can be considered to be the most impressive success story of modern electrochemistry in the last two decades. They power most of today's portable devices, and seem to overcome the psychological barriers against the use of such high energy density devices on a larger scale for more demanding applications, such as EV. Since this field is advancing rapidly and attracting an increasing number of researchers, it is important to provide current and timely updates of this constantly changing technology. In this review, we describe the key aspects of Li-ion batteries: the basic science behind their operation, the most relevant components, anodes, cathodes, electrolyte solutions, as well as important future directions for R&D of advanced Li-ion batteries for demanding use, such as EV and load-leveling applications.

Challenges in the development of advanced Li-ion batteries: a review

Energy storage using batteries offers a solution to the intermittent nature of energy production from renewable sources; however, such technology must be sustainable. This Review discusses battery development from a sustainability perspective, considering the energy and environmental costs of state-of-the-art Li-ion batteries and the design of new systems beyond Li-ion. Images: batteries, car, globe: © iStock/Thinkstock.

Towards greener and more sustainable batteries for electrical energy storage

Li-ion battery materials: present and future

Research Development on Sodium-Ion Batteries

The thermodynamic properties of magnesium make it a natural choice for use as an anode material in rechargeable batteries, because it may provide a considerably higher energy density than the commonly used lead-acid and nickel-cadmium systems Moreover, in contrast to lead and cadmium, magnesium is inexpensive, environmentally friendly and safe to handle But the development of Mg batteries has been hindered by two problems First, owing to the chemical activity of Mg, only solutions that neither donate nor accept protons are suitable as electrolytes; but most of these solutions allow the growth of passivating surface films, which inhibit any electrochemical reaction Second, the choice of cathode materials has been limited by the difficulty of intercalating Mg ions in many hosts Following previous studies of the electrochemistry of Mg electrodes in various non-aqueous solutions, and of a variety of intercalation electrodes, we have now developed rechargeable Mg battery systems that show promise for applications The systems comprise electrolyte solutions based on Mg organohaloaluminate salts, and Mg(x)Mo3S4 cathodes, into which Mg ions can be intercalated reversibly, and with relatively fast kinetics We expect that further improvements in the energy density will make these batteries a viable alternative to existing systems

Prototype systems for rechargeable magnesium batteries

On the correlation between surface chemistry and performance of graphite negative electrodes for Li ion batteries

This paper compares the electroanalytical behavior of lithiated graphite, , , and spinel electrodes. Slow scan rate cyclic voltammetry (SSCV), potentiostatic intermittent titration (PITT), and electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) were applied in order to study the potentiodynamic behavior, the variation of the solid‐state diffusion coefficient, and the impedance of these electrodes. In addition, X‐ray diffractometry and Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy were used in order to follow structural and surface chemical changes of these electrodes upon cycling. It was found that all four types of electrodes behave very similarly. Their SSCV are characterized by narrow peaks which may reflect phase transition between intercalation stages, and the potential‐dependent Li chemical diffusion coefficient is a function with sharp minima in the vicinity of the CV peak potentials, in which the differential electrode capacity is maximal. The impedance spectra of these electrodes reflect an overall process of various steps in series. These include ion migration through surface films, charge transfer which depends strongly on the potential, solid‐state diffusion and, finally, accumulation of the intercalants in their sites in the bulk of the active mass, which appears as a strongly potential‐dependent, low‐frequency capacitive element. It is demonstrated that the above electro‐analytical response, which can be considered as the electrochemical fingerprint of these electrodes, may serve as a good in situ tool for the study of capacity fading mechanisms.

Common Electroanalytical Behavior of Li Intercalation Processes into Graphite and Transition Metal Oxides

To initiate wider discussion about promising research directions, this paper highlights a number of challenges in the development of rechargeable Mg batteries, especially those related to the slow solid-state Mg diffusion in common hosts. With a focus on the intercalation mechanism, we compare for the first time different strategies proposed in the literature for developing Mg battery cathodes, like the use of (i) nanoscale cathode materials; (ii) hybrid intercalation compounds containing bound water or other additional anion groups that can presumably screen the charge of the inserted cations, (iii) cluster-containing compounds with efficient attainment of local electroneutrality. This comparative analysis shows that cathodes whose function is based on a combination of the two first strategies, e.g., V2O5 gels and their hybrids, can exhibit relatively high voltage and capacity upon Mg insertion, but their kinetics is insufficiently fast. A proper intercalation mechanism for such materials is still unknow...

Elena Levi

Papers

Prototype systems for rechargeable magnesium batteries

On the correlation between surface chemistry and performance of graphite negative electrodes for Li ion batteries

Common Electroanalytical Behavior of Li Intercalation Processes into Graphite and Transition Metal Oxides

On the Way to Rechargeable Mg Batteries: The Challenge of New Cathode Materials†

Progress in Rechargeable Magnesium Battery Technology