Researchers must find a sustainable way of providing the power our modern lifestyles demand.

Building better batteries

Energy storage using batteries offers a solution to the intermittent nature of energy production from renewable sources; however, such technology must be sustainable. This Review discusses battery development from a sustainability perspective, considering the energy and environmental costs of state-of-the-art Li-ion batteries and the design of new systems beyond Li-ion. Images: batteries, car, globe: © iStock/Thinkstock.

Towards greener and more sustainable batteries for electrical energy storage

Since the discovery of mechanically exfoliated graphene in 2004, research on ultrathin two-dimensional (2D) nanomaterials has grown exponentially in the fields of condensed matter physics, material science, chemistry, and nanotechnology. Highlighting their compelling physical, chemical, electronic, and optical properties, as well as their various potential applications, in this Review, we summarize the state-of-art progress on the ultrathin 2D nanomaterials with a particular emphasis on their recent advances. First, we introduce the unique advances on ultrathin 2D nanomaterials, followed by the description of their composition and crystal structures. The assortments of their synthetic methods are then summarized, including insights on their advantages and limitations, alongside some recommendations on suitable characterization techniques. We also discuss in detail the utilization of these ultrathin 2D nanomaterials for wide ranges of potential applications among the electronics/optoelectronics, electrocat...

Recent Advances in Ultrathin Two-Dimensional Nanomaterials

Electrolytes and interphases in Li-ion batteries and beyond.

Energy density is the main property of rechargeable batteries that has driven the entire technology forward in past decades. Lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) now surpass other, previously competitive battery types (for example, lead–acid and nickel metal hydride) but still require extensive further improvement to, in particular, extend the operation hours of mobile IT devices and the driving mileages of all-electric vehicles. In this Review, we present a critical overview of a wide range of post-LIB materials and systems that could have a pivotal role in meeting such demands. We divide battery systems into two categories: near-term and long-term technologies. To provide a realistic and balanced perspective, we describe the operating principles and remaining issues of each post-LIB technology, and also evaluate these materials under commercial cell configurations. Post-lithium-ion batteries are reviewed with a focus on their operating principles, advantages and the challenges that they face. The volumetric energy density of each battery is examined using a commercial pouch-cell configuration to evaluate its practical significance and identify appropriate research directions.

Promise and reality of post-lithium-ion batteries with high energy densities

The thermodynamic properties of magnesium make it a natural choice for use as an anode material in rechargeable batteries, because it may provide a considerably higher energy density than the commonly used lead-acid and nickel-cadmium systems Moreover, in contrast to lead and cadmium, magnesium is inexpensive, environmentally friendly and safe to handle But the development of Mg batteries has been hindered by two problems First, owing to the chemical activity of Mg, only solutions that neither donate nor accept protons are suitable as electrolytes; but most of these solutions allow the growth of passivating surface films, which inhibit any electrochemical reaction Second, the choice of cathode materials has been limited by the difficulty of intercalating Mg ions in many hosts Following previous studies of the electrochemistry of Mg electrodes in various non-aqueous solutions, and of a variety of intercalation electrodes, we have now developed rechargeable Mg battery systems that show promise for applications The systems comprise electrolyte solutions based on Mg organohaloaluminate salts, and Mg(x)Mo3S4 cathodes, into which Mg ions can be intercalated reversibly, and with relatively fast kinetics We expect that further improvements in the energy density will make these batteries a viable alternative to existing systems

Prototype systems for rechargeable magnesium batteries

Magnesium can be reversibly deposited from ethereal solutions of Grignard salts of the RMgX type (R = alkyl, aryl groups, and X = halides: Cl, Br), and complexes of the Mg(AX 4-n R n' R' n ) 2 type (A = Al, B; X = Cl, Br; R, R' = alkyl or aryl groups, and n' + n = n). These complexes can he considered as interaction products between R 2 Mg bases and AX 3-n R n Lewis acids. The use of such complexes in ether solvents enables us to obtain solutions of reasonable ionic conductivity and high anodic stability, which can be suitable for rechargeable Mg battery systems. In this paper we report on the study of variety of Mg(AX 4-n R n ) 2 complexes, where A = Al, B, Sb, P, As, Fe, and Ta; X = Cl, Br, and F; and R = butyl, ethyl, phenyl, and benzyl (Bu, Et, Ph, and Bz, respectively) in several solvents, including tetrahydrofuran (THF), 2Me-THF, 1-3 dioxolane, diethyl ether, and polyethers from the glyme family, including dimethoxyethane (glyme), (CH 3 OCH 2 CH 2 ) 2 O(diglyme), and CH 3 (OCH 2 CH 2 ) 4 OCH 3 (tet-raglyme), as electrolyte solutions for rechargeable magnesium batteries. It was found that Mg(AlCl 4-n R n' R' n ) 2 complexes (R, R' = Et, Bu and n' + n = n) in THF or glymes constitute the best results in terms of the width of the electrochemical window (>2 V), from which magnesium can he deposited reversibly. These solutions were found to be suitable for use in rechargeable magnesium batteries. A variety of electrochemical and spectroscopic studies showed that these solutions have a complicated structure, which is discussed in this paper. It is also clear from this work that Mg deposition-dissolution processes in these solutions are far from being simple reactions of Mg/Mg +2 redox couple. The conditions for optimized Mg deposition-dissolution processes are discussed herein.

https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1149/1.1429925/pdf

Electrolyte Solutions for Rechargeable Magnesium Batteries Based on Organomagnesium Chloroaluminate Complexes

A short review on the comparison between Li battery systems and rechargeable magnesium battery technology

Solid-state rechargeable magnesium batteries

Electrolyte solutions of magnesium organo-halo-aluminates in ethers are suitable for rechargeable magnesium batteries as they enable highly reversible electrodeposition for magnesium while they possess a wide electrochemical window (>2.2 V). Adding LiCI or tetrabutylammonium chloride to these solutions considerably improves their ionic conductivity, the kinetics of the Mg deposition-dissolution processes, and the intercalation behavior of Mg x MO 6 S 8 Chevrel cathodes. The dissolution of both salts in the electrolytic solutions involves acid-base reactions with complex species. Multinuclei nuclear magnetic resonance and Raman spectroscopy were used in conjunction with electrochemical techniques to study these systems. The nature of these reactions, their products, and the way they influence the various properties of these solutions, are discussed herein.

Haim Gizbar

Papers

Prototype systems for rechargeable magnesium batteries

Electrolyte Solutions for Rechargeable Magnesium Batteries Based on Organomagnesium Chloroaluminate Complexes

A short review on the comparison between Li battery systems and rechargeable magnesium battery technology

Solid-state rechargeable magnesium batteries

Improved Electrolyte Solutions for Rechargeable Magnesium Batteries