Showing papers by "Everett L. Worthington published in 2015"

Forgiving the self and physical and mental health correlates: a meta-analytic review.

Abstract: Self-forgiveness has been conceptualized as a coping strategy that may improve health and well-being. To better understand the functions of self-forgiveness, this meta-analysis examines the correlates of self-forgiveness associated with physical and mental health. For physical health, across 18 samples and 5,653 participants, the correlation was .32. For psychological well-being, across 65 samples and 17,939 participants, the correlation was .45. To augment this primary focus on physical and mental health correlates, we estimated the relationships between self-forgiveness and specific mental health constructs and relationship outcomes. Implications for future basic and applied research on self-forgiveness are discussed.

Efficacy of a self-forgiveness workbook: a randomized controlled trial with interpersonal offenders.

Abstract: The present study tested the efficacy of a 6-hr self-directed workbook intervention designed to increase self-forgiveness and reduce self-condemnation among perpetrators of interpersonal offenses. University students (N = 204) were randomly assigned to either an immediate treatment or wait-list control condition, and assessments were administered on 3 occasions. Treatment led to increases in self-forgiveness and decreases in self-condemnation. Stronger treatment effects were associated with (a) lower levels of dispositional self-forgivingness, (b) higher levels of transgression severity, and (c) higher dose of treatment. In summary, the workbook appeared to facilitate self-forgiveness among perpetrators of interpersonal wrongdoing, though replication trials are needed to build from these preliminary findings.

Development of the Sources of Spirituality Scale.

Abstract: Most measures of spirituality privilege religious spirituality, but people may experience spirituality in a variety of ways, including a sense of closeness, oneness, or connection with a theistic being, the transcendent (i.e., something outside space and time), oneself, humanity, or nature. The overall purpose of the present 4 studies was to develop the Sources of Spirituality (SOS) Scale to measure these different elements of spirituality. In Study 1, we created items, had them reviewed by experts, and used data from a sample of undergraduates (N = 218) to evaluate factor structure and inform initial measurement revisions. The factor structure replicated well in another sample of undergraduates (N = 200; Study 2), and in a sample of community adults (N = 140; Study 3). In a sample of undergraduates (N = 200; Study 4), we then evaluated evidence of construct validity by examining associations between SOS Scale scores and religious commitment, positive attitudes toward the Sacred, and dispositional connection with nature. Moreover, based on latent profile analyses results, we found 5 distinct patterns of spirituality based on SOS subscales. We consider implications for therapy and relevance of the findings for models of spirituality and future research.

Intellectual humility and forgiveness of religious leaders

Abstract: This article presents two studies that examined how perceptions of intellectual humility affect response to a transgression by a religious leader. In Study 1, participants (N = 105) rated the religious leader on intellectual humility regarding different religious beliefs and values, as well as general humility and forgiveness of the leader for a transgression. Perceived intellectual humility was positively associated with forgiveness, even when controlling for perceived general humility. In Study 2, we replicated the findings from Study 1 on an independent sample (N = 299). Also, the type of offense moderated the association between perceived intellectual humility and forgiveness. For participants, who reported an offense in the area of religious beliefs, values, or convictions, the association between perceived intellectual humility and forgiveness was stronger than for participants, who reported a different type of offense. We conclude by discussing limitations and areas for future research.

Making a Decision to Forgive

Abstract: Prominent models and interventions designed to promote forgiveness have distinguished one's decision to forgive from achieving forgiveness as an end state, but because of a lack of a strong measure, there is a weak research base on making a decision to forgive. Thus, in three studies, the authors developed the Decision to Forgive Scale (DTFS) and examined evidence for its reliability and construct validity. The article focused on distinguishing making a decision to forgive from achieved level of forgiveness. Scores on the DTFS showed evidence of reliability, with Cronbach's alpha coefficients ranging from .92 to .94, and a 1-week temporal stability coefficient of .68. Using several strategies, the authors demonstrated that the DTFS is empirically distinct from the Transgression-Related Interpersonal Motivations scale (TRIM; McCullough et al., 1998). Namely, a 3-factor confirmatory factor analysis that included the DTFS and the 2 TRIM subscales showed excellent fit, suggesting these instruments assess 3 different constructs. The DTFS was only moderately related to the TRIM subscales, was more strongly related to stage of change than the TRIM, and predicted subsequent TRIM scores in a cross-lagged model. Finally, although decisions to forgive generally suggested greater forgiveness, these constructs interacted to predict existential distress. Namely, as decisional forgiveness increased, revenge was more strongly related to existential distress. Overall, the DTFS shows considerable promise for further clinical and basic research applications.

Forgiveness and Mental Health

Abstract: We report a decade review of studies conducted to investigate the relationship between forgiveness and mental health. The salutary effects of forgiveness among victims of offense are summarized according to four propositions: (1) Unforgiveness is a stress-reaction related to poor mental health, (2) Forgiveness is a coping strategy related to improved mental health, (3) Individual differences moderate the impact of forgiveness on health, and (4) Psychological states mediate the impact of forgiveness on health. In addition, perpetrators of offense who seek and receive forgiveness as well as perpetrators who forgive themselves experience better mental health. We conclude that empirical evidence supports the application of forgiveness as a mechanism to promote better mental health among victims and perpetrators of interpersonal harm.

Forgiveness-reconciliation and communication-conflict-resolution interventions versus retested controls in early married couples.

Abstract: The first 6 months of marriage are optimal for marriage enrichment interventions. The Hope-Focused Approach to couple enrichment was presented as two 9-hr interventions--(a) Handling Our Problems Effectively (HOPE), which emphasized communication and conflict resolution, and (b) Forgiveness and Reconciliation through Experiencing Empathy (FREE). HOPE and FREE were compared with repeated assessment controls. Couples were randomly assigned and were assessed at pretreatment (t1); 1 month posttreatment (t2) and at 3- (t3), 6- (t4), and 12-month (t5) follow-ups using self-reports. In addition to self-report measures, couples were assessed at t1, t2, and t5 using salivary cortisol, and behavioral coding of decision making. Of 179 couples who began the study, 145 cases were analyzed. Both FREE and HOPE produced lasting positive changes on self-reports. For cortisol reactivity, HOPE and FREE reduced reactivity at t2, but only HOPE at t5. For coded behaviors, control couples deteriorated; FREE and HOPE did not change. Enrichment training was effective regardless of the focus of the training.

Measures of Forgiveness: Self-Report, Physiological, Chemical, and Behavioral Indicators

Abstract: We review 14 measures of forgiveness, including measures of state forgiveness, forgivingness as a disposition or trait, self-reported state self-forgiveness, and trait self-forgivingness. The state forgiveness measures include self-report measures, chemical measures of state unforgiveness and forgiveness, measures of peripheral physiology (i.e., blood pressure, heart rate, skin conductance, and electrical activity of facial muscles) to supplement self-reports – unforgiveness, measures of brain activity associated with forgiveness, and behavioral indices of forgiveness. We also review a ten-item scale and a five-scenario scale of dispositional forgivingness. Self-forgiveness may also be assessed at state (one measure) and trait levels (one measure). These measures of forgiveness and their various targets (self or other) and different levels (state or trait) are generally strong – with considerable evidence supporting estimated reliabilities and construct validities.

Intergroup forgiveness of race-related offenses.

Abstract: We developed a new intergroup forgiveness measure in the context of identity-related offenses, with a focus on racial conflicts. In Study 1 (N = 384), we adapted a widely used measure of interpersonal forgiveness to develop the Group Forgiveness Scale (GFS) within the context of an identity-related offense. In Study 2, we replicated the 3-factor structure of the GFS (i.e., Avoidance, Revenge, Decision to Forgive) and examined evidence for its construct validity in a sample of African American/Black university students (N = 225). As evidence of convergent validity, intergroup forgiveness correlated with appraising greater relationship value as well as appraising lower likelihood of being exploited in the future. As evidence of discriminant validity, the newly developed intergroup forgiveness scale (i.e., the GFS) correlated only moderately with interpersonal forgiveness and perceived microaggressions. In Study 3, in another sample of racial/ethnic minority individuals (N = 352), we examined the predictive validity of the scale. More specifically, we examined relations of the GFS subscales with religious commitment and racial/ethnic identity. The Decision to Forgive subscale uniquely correlated with religious commitment controlling for the Avoidance and Revenge subscales. Lower revenge correlated with stronger racial/ethnic identity. We conclude with implications of the current findings for the development of intergroup forgiveness measurement and for understanding the nature of forgiveness within marginalized groups.

Forgiveness in the Treatment of Borderline Personality Disorder: A Quasi-Experimental Study.

Abstract: Objective This pilot study evaluated a manualized group forgiveness module within dialectical behavior therapy (DBT). Method The study utilized a quasi-experimental double pretest design with adults (N = 40; 88.1% female, 11.9% male) diagnosed with borderline personality disorder in outpatient DBT. Measures of forgiveness, attachment, and psychiatric symptoms were completed at 4 time points. Results Participants showed increases in all measures of forgiveness and decreases in attachment insecurity and psychiatric symptoms during the forgiveness module and maintained to the 6-week follow-up. These effects were not observed during the prior distress tolerance module. Latent change score modeling showed reductions in anxious attachment mediated the effect of changes in benevolent motivations to forgive and trait forgiveness scores on reductions in psychiatric symptoms. Conclusions Effect sizes were similar to meta-analytic findings on (a) forgiveness interventions and (b) reductions in psychiatric symptoms in DBT. Participant feedback suggested elements for further development. A randomized controlled trial is needed.

Introduction: Context, Overview, and Guiding Questions

Abstract: We introduce the work undertaken in this volume by providing a bird’s eye view of the history and context in which this work began and has continued. The focus of much of the research in forgiveness has tended to be in areas of counseling and of personality and social psychology. In this volume, we emphasize the role of forgiveness in health. The research teams contributing to this volume have offered their views on forgiveness, conceptual models that guide work in different areas, and agendas for future research. We hope that readers will come away with an appreciation for the role of forgiveness in health. Additionally, we want you to be able to answer the question, Is forgiveness good for me?

A Conceptual Model of Forgiveness and Health

Abstract: In the present chapter, we review the adverse effects of unforgiveness on physical health and develop an integrative conceptual model involving precursors as well as mechanisms that may function as a foundation for future empirical investigations on forgiveness and its influence on health. This model suggests that a forgiving personality, positive religious coping experiences, and age all impact the likelihood of a person to forgive. From there, we suggest that this forgiveness leads to decreased negative experiences, decreased risky health behaviors and unhealthy coping mechanisms, increased positive experiences, increased relational well-being, and increased spiritual well-being. These serve as mechanisms between forgiveness and better mental health and well-being, as well as between forgiveness and decreased physiological risk factors. These two factors combine and contribute to better physical health outcomes. We conclude with an agenda for future research in light of this model.

Concluding Thoughts: Summary and Integration, Models, and Research Agendas

Abstract: In the concluding chapter of this book, we consider the emergent themes arising from the different research teams and also focus on the key questions we identified at the outset. As such, we examine both commonalities and differences in how forgiveness is defined. We observe that there is considerable agreement about the multidimensional nature of forgiveness but that some dimensions have less well developed research bases than do others. We note that the stress-and-coping model of forgiveness is a commonly used conceptual framework from which to organize and guide continuing research in the area of forgiveness and health. Other useful models are developed throughout the book, and we offer a reciprocal-effects forgiveness-intersections model as a flexible model for the area. We conclude with items we believe are important for research agendas of investigators moving forward in the study of forgiveness and health.

Negative internal causal attributions of a specific offense and forgiveness

Abstract: Causal attributions are important social-cognitive predictors of forgiveness. This article presents the Transgression Attribution Questionnaire (TAQ), a measure of one's negative internal causal attributions of a specific offense. In 4 studies, scores on the TAQ showed initial evidence of estimated internal consistency, temporal stability, and construct validity. Negative internal attributions for the cause of a transgression predicted lower levels of empathy and forgiveness. Furthermore, scores on the TAQ predicted forgiveness over and above the hurtfulness of the offense, relationship commitment, and a general measure of internal causal attributions in relationships. The current research bridges research on internal causal attributions and forgiveness. Implications for the social-cognitive study of forgiveness and the measurement of causal attributions are discussed.

Sex, Forgiveness, and Health

Abstract: Men and women respond to transgressions in ways that are similar and different. We review research on potential effects of forgiveness of others and self-forgiveness and mental and physical health. We drew from two published meta-analyses (Fehr et al. Psychol Bull 136:894–914, 2010; Miller et al. J Soc Clin Psychol 27:843–876, 2008) by examining studies that dealt not only with sex differences in forgiveness but also physical and mental health. Five relevant newer studies were also reviewed. We suggest a model that variables can vary based on sex (i.e., stress, coping, empathy, rumination, gender socialization, and religion) and those variables can affect mental and physical health both directly and indirectly by acting through forgiveness. Little research has addressed how the forgiveness-health relationship varies by sex, but some key findings emerged. First, when sex differences in forgiveness were found, women were typically more forgiving than men and men are more vengeful than women. Second, how forgiveness affects physical health varies by sex. Third, forgiveness interventions aimed at improving mental and physical health can be tailored differently to men and women. Because few studies have addressed forgiveness and health, we caution that sex differences are likely small.