There is, I think, something ethereal about i —the square root of minus one. I remember first hearing about it at school. It seemed an odd beast at that time—an intruder hovering on the edge of reality.

Usually familiarity dulls this sense of the bizarre, but in the case of i it was the reverse: over the years the sense of its surreal nature intensified. It seemed that it was impossible to write mathematics that described the real world in …

I and i

抗原变异可使得多种致病微生物易于逃避宿主免疫应答。表达在感染红细胞表面的恶性疟原虫红细胞表面蛋白1（PfPMP1）与感染红细胞、内皮细胞、树突状细胞以及胎盘的单个或多个受体作用，在黏附及免疫逃避中起关键的作用。每个单倍体基因组var基因家族编码约60种成员，通过启动转录不同的var基因变异体为抗原变异提供了分子基础。

疟原虫var基因转换速率变化导致抗原变异[英]／Paul H, Robert P, Christodoulou Z, et al//Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A

Responsive polymer materials can adapt to surrounding environments, regulate transport of ions and molecules, change wettability and adhesion of different species on external stimuli, or convert chemical and biochemical signals into optical, electrical, thermal and mechanical signals, and vice versa. These materials are playing an increasingly important part in a diverse range of applications, such as drug delivery, diagnostics, tissue engineering and 'smart' optical systems, as well as biosensors, microelectromechanical systems, coatings and textiles. We review recent advances and challenges in the developments towards applications of stimuli-responsive polymeric materials that are self-assembled from nanostructured building blocks. We also provide a critical outline of emerging developments.

Emerging applications of stimuli-responsive polymer materials

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Methods Of Enzymatic Analysis

Poor electron transfer and slow mass transport of substrates are significant rate-limiting steps in electrochemical systems. It is especially true in biological media, in which the concentrations and diffusion coeffi cients of substrates are low, hindering the development of power systems for miniaturized biomedical devices. In this study, we show that the newly engineered porous microwires comprised of assembled and oriented carbon nanotubes (CNTs) overcome the limitations of small dimensions and large specific surface area. Their improved performances are shown by comparing the electroreduction of oxygen to water in saline buffer on carbon and CNT fi bres. Under air, and after several hours of operation, we show that CNT microwires exhibit more than tenfold higher performances than conventional carbon fi bres. Consequently, under physiological conditions, the maximum power density of a miniature membraneless glucose / oxygen CNT biofuel cell exceeds by far the power density obtained for the current state of art carbon fi bre biofuel cells.

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Engineering hybrid nanotube wires for high-power biofuel cells

In this critical review we review enzymatic systems which involve biocatalytic reactions utilized for information processing (biocomputing). Extensive ongoing research in biocomputing, mimicking Boolean logic gates has been motivated by potential applications in biotechnology and medicine. Furthermore, novel sensor concepts have been contemplated with multiple inputs processed biochemically before the final output is coupled to transducing “smart-material” electrodes and other systems. These applications have warranted recent emphasis on networking of biocomputing gates. First few-gate networks have been experimentally realized, including coupling, for instance, to signal-responsive electrodes for signal readout. In order to achieve scalable, stable network design and functioning, considerations of noise propagation and control have been initiated as a new research direction. Optimization of single enzyme-based gates for avoiding analog noise amplification has been explored, as were certain network-optimization concepts. We review and exemplify these developments, as well as offer an outlook for possible future research foci. The latter include design and uses of non-Boolean network elements, e.g., filters, as well as other developments motivated by potential novel sensor and biotechnology applications (136 references).

Enzyme-based logic systems for information processing

Implantable biofuel cells have been suggested as sustainable micropower sources operating in living organisms, but such bioelectronic systems are still exotic and very challenging to design. Very few examples of abiotic and enzyme-based biofuel cells operating in animals in vivo have been reported. Implantation of biocatalytic electrodes and extraction of electrical power from small living creatures is even more difficult and has not been achieved to date. Here we report on the first implanted biofuel cell continuously operating in a snail and producing electrical power over a long period of time using physiologically produced glucose as a fuel. The “electrified” snail, being a biotechnological living “device”, was able to regenerate glucose consumed by biocatalytic electrodes, upon appropriate feeding and relaxing, and then produce a new “portion” of electrical energy. The snail with the implanted biofuel cell will be able to operate in a natural environment, producing sustainable electrical micropower f...

Implanted Biofuel Cell Operating in a Living Snail

Enzyme-based biofuel cells implanted into living lobsters or designed as fluidic systems mimicking human blood circulation were used for powering electronic devices. Two lobsters with implanted biofuel cells connected in series were able to generate open circuit voltage (Voc) up to 1.2 V and an electrical watch, selected as a model electronic device, was activated by the power extracted from the “living battery”. The fluidic system composed of five cells filled with human serum solution connected in series generated Voc of ca. 3 V and was able to power a pacemaker. Sustainable operation of the pacemaker was achieved with the system closely mimicking human physiological conditions characteristic of normal and pathophysiological glucose concentrations with the fluidic rate typical for a blood circulation upon resting or performing physical exercises. While the “cyborg” lobsters demonstrate a model system with future possible military, homeland security and environmental monitoring applications, the system activating a pacemaker presents practicality for biomedical applications. The first demonstration of the pacemaker activated by the physiologically produced electrical energy shows promise for future electronic implantable medical devices powered by electricity harvested from the human body.

/pdf/from-cyborg-lobsters-to-a-pacemaker-powered-by-implantable-2djepac2do.pdf

From “cyborg” lobsters to a pacemaker powered by implantable biofuel cells

A biomolecular security system mimicking a keypad lock device was developed using enzyme-based concatenated AND logic gates resulting in the implication logic network.

Biocomputing Security System: Concatenated Enzyme-Based Logic Gates Operating as a Biomolecular Keypad Lock

Biofuel cells implanted in living clams and producing sustainable electrical power in vivo were integrated in batteries. The “electrified” clams, being biotechnological living “devices”, were able to generate electrical power using physiologically produced glucose as the fuel. The activity of the living batteries was dependent on the environmental conditions which are affecting physiological processes in clams. The living batteries generated open circuitry voltage (Voc), short circuitry current (Isc) and maximum power (Pmax) of ca. 800 mV, 25 μA, 5.2 μW and ca. 360 mV, 300 μA, 37 μW for the serial and parallel connections of 3 “electrified” clams, respectively. A clam-battery was connected to a capacitor which was charged up to 240 mV providing accumulation of electrical energy up to 28.8 mJ. Discharging the capacitor on an electrical motor resulted in the motor rotation. The “electrified” clams integrated in batteries demonstrated the possibility of activating electrical/electronic devices using energy produced in vivo.

/pdf/living-battery-biofuel-cells-operating-in-vivo-in-clams-hymy7zxlyl.pdf

Evgeny Katz

Papers

Enzyme-based logic systems for information processing

Implanted Biofuel Cell Operating in a Living Snail

From “cyborg” lobsters to a pacemaker powered by implantable biofuel cells

Biocomputing Security System: Concatenated Enzyme-Based Logic Gates Operating as a Biomolecular Keypad Lock

Living battery – biofuel cells operating in vivo in clams